The Apollo Project was the US space project to land a person on the moon in order to prove to the world the ideological superiority of the American system over that of Communist Russia. It was reportedly achieved by Apollo 11 in July 1969. The three-stage vehicle to carry the astronauts to the moon was code named Saturn, and the contract to develop the Apollo three-man spacecraft was awarded to North American Aviation Incorporated in 1961 by NASA. The first launch into orbit of an Apollo command module was made by Saturn SA-6 on May the 28th 1964, and the first manned flight was made after a fire during ground tests killed the three astronauts - Virgil Grissom, Edward White and Roger Chaffee - on January the 27th 1967.
Controversy surrounds the supposed moon landing, with theories abounding that in 1969 it was technically impossible to land on the moon, and as a result NASA faked the moon landing, filming the 'landing' at the top secret military base, Area 51, in the Nevada desert while the astronauts actually orbited the earth for eight days before returning. This theory was later illustrated in the film 'Capricorn One' which told the fictional story of a faked landing on the planetMars. Research Apollo Project
In India, a ghat is a landing place by a river. The term ghat is especially applied when the structure is large and substantially constructed. These ghats are very numerous on the Ganges, and are great places of resort by the people of the towns where they are situated. Some of them are noteworthy from an architectural point of view, having temples, bathing-houses, etc, at the top. Research Ghat
The question of immigration or properly alien immigration, has been a topic of controversy since at least the 19th century. In various countries certain classes of aliens have long been prohibited from gaining admission. In the 19th century and start of the 20th century, the United States, for instance, refused admission to such persons as idiots, epileptics, persons suffering from loathsome or dangerous contagious diseases, paupers, criminals (but not political criminals), beggars, anarchists, etc. Chinese labourers as a whole were excluded, and even any persons coming to America under a definite agreement to engage in any kind of labour or service. Similar laws were in force in Australia, where there was a test that a person proposing to settle in the country must be able to write fifty words of a European language.
In the later part of the 19th century the great influx of foreigners into Britain, and into London in particular, drew public attention to the matter. A select committee appointed in 1888 reported in favour of the exclusion of destitute aliens, in 1894 a bill was introduced into the House of Lords, while in 1898 a bill to regulate the immigration of aliens was passed in the Lords, but made no farther progress. In 1902 a royal commission was appointed, and drew up a report, published in 1903, containing valuable information and various recommendations. Among these were the establishment of an immigration department, and the granting of powers to deport criminals, prostitutes, and other undesirable aliens, and to prevent the landing of persons mentally unfit or suffering from infectious or loathsome diseases. In 1904 an Aliens Immigration Bill was introduced and read a second time in the House of Commons. It was based on the recommendations of the commission, and in its favour it was argued that a large amount of British labour had been displaced by aliens, in London especially, that the prevalence of crime among aliens was out of proportion to their numbers, that many of them were paupers, criminals convicted in their own country, or other undesirables. In 1905 another bill on the subject was introduced by the government, which succeeded in passing it in the beginning of August, so that the matter could be dealt with.
In 1905 writers complained about the absence of hitherto strict methods of ascertaining the number of aliens that entered the country and settled, stating that there were no means of checking their numbers year by year. At the census of 1901 the whole alienpopulation in Britain was set down at 286,925, as against 219,523 in 1891. After 1901 there was a further large influx of foreign immigrants into Britain, by far the largest number consisting of Russian and Polish Jews. In 1905 writers were concerned at the number of alien criminals in Britain, citing that in 1900, 3130 aliens were received into British prisons and in 1904 the number was 4774. Research Immigration
The Virginius was an American merchant vessel, which was captured on the high seas near Jamaica by the Spanish man-of-war Tornado, on October the 31st, 1873, on the ground that it intended landing men to assist in the Cuban insurrection then in progress. Four Cubans found among the passengers, and Captain Fry, with a number of others, were executed. This caused considerable excitement in the United States. Spain, however, made immediate and ample reparation. The incident served to foment the filibustering spirit against Cuba rife among a certain statesmen of the USA. Research Virginius Incident
Agelenidae are a family of spiders, the members of which vary, with genera being moved into other families by some naturalists. The Agelenidae spin a tubular retreat from which extends either a small collar of silk, or a sheet of silk which may be large or small, and may be slightly funnel-shaped. The spiders grab prey falling onto or landing on the sheet and drag them back into their retreat to be eaten. Some times the retreat is not a web but a crevice in a wall or the junction of a wall and a garden fence post. Research Agelenidae
The albatross is a long winged, powerful oceanic bird. There are some thirteen species of albatross, all related to the petrels, and constituting the family Diomedeidae. Albatross have large heads, stout bodies and extremely long narrow wings. The bill is straight and strong, the upper mandible hookedat the point and the lower mandible truncated. The bill is covered with distinctive horny plates. The feet are webbed with three toes on each foot. The upper part of the body is of a greyish brown colour, the belly white. The albatross is the largest known sea bird, with a wing span of some 533 cm. Albatross often accompany ships for days on end without ever landing, and are regarded with feelings of attachment and traditionally superstitious awe by sailors - it being considered bad luck to kill an albatross. Research Albatross
Albert Sidney Johnston was an American soldier. He was born in 1803 at Kentucky and died in 1862. A distinguished Confederate general, he graduated at West Point in 1826. He served in the Black Hawk War, and soon after entered the army of Texas, and became Secretary of War for that republic. He passed through the Mexican War, was for a short time a planter, and again in the US army rose to be paymaster and colonel. He commanded skilfully the expedition to Utah, and was in charge of the Department of the Pacific when the American Civil War broke out. Having espoused the Confederate cause he was appointed a general and entrusted with command in the West. He fortified the strategic point of Bowling Green, but his forces were driven back, and he was compelled to concentrate at Corinth. From this point he planned a surprise on Grant's army lying at Pittsburg Landing. The attack was executed in one of the fiercest battles of the war, but General Johnston was killed in the afternoon of the first day while leading a charge. Research Albert Sidney Johnston
Amy Johnson was an English aviator. She was born in 1903 at Hull, Humberside and died in 1941. She became a pilot in 1929 and in 1930 flew solo from England to Australia in a second-hand De Havilland DH 60 Gipsy Moth aircraft (christened Jason Wanderer) which her father bought for her, setting a new speed record, breaking the record held by Bert Hinkler - despite losing two days after hitting a ditch while landing at Insein which caused considerable damage to the plane - for which she won a prize of £10,000 awarded by the London Daily Mailnewspaper. During the Second World War she was a pilot with the Air Transport Auxiliary and died after bailing out over the Thamesestuary. Research Amy Johnson
Christopher Columbus (real name Cristoforo Colombo, known in Spanish as Christoval Colon) was an Italian navigator. He was born in 1451 at Genoa and died in 1506. His father, Domenico Colombo, a poor wool-comber, gave him a careful education. He appears to have gone to sea at an early age and to have navigated all parts of the Mediterranean and some of the coasts beyond the Straits of Gibraltar. In 1470 we find him at Lisbon, where he married the daughter of Bartolommeo de Palestrello, a distinguished navigator. He had gradually come to the conclusion that there were unknown lands belonging to Eastern Asia separated from Europe by the Atlantic: whilst the Portuguese were seeking to reach India by a south-east course round Africa he was convinced that there must be a shorter way by the west. He applied in vain to Genoa for assistance, and equally fruitless were his endeavours to interest John II of Portugal in the enterprise. He then determined to apply to the Spanish court; and after many disappointments he induced Ferdinand and Isabella to equip and man three vessels for a voyage of discovery.
It was early in the morning of Friday, on the 3rd of August, 1492, that Christopher Columbus set sail from the port of Palos, and after sailing for two months the expedition narrowly escaped failure. The variation of the needle so alarmed the crews that they were on the point of breaking out into open mutiny, and he was obliged to promise that he would turn back if three more days brought no discovery. On the third day (the 12th of October 1492) the island of Guanahani or San Salvador was sighted, which Christopher Columbus believed to belong to Eastern Asia and to be connected with India - a belief which he carried with him to his grave. Hence the mistaken name of Indians applied to the natives of America, and that of West Indies applied to the group of islands of which Guanahani forms one.
On landing Christopher Columbus threw himself upon his knees and kissed the earth, returning thanks to God. The natives collected round him in silent astonishment, and his men, ashamed of their disobedience and distrust, threw themselves at his feet, begging his forgiveness. Christopher Columbus, drawing his sword, planted the royal standard, and in the name of his sovereigns took possession of the country, which, in memory of his preservation, he called San Salvador. He then sailed in search of other lands, and discovered Cuba, St Domingo, and some other of the West India islands. Being so far successful, he built a fort at Hispaniola, Haiti, left some of his men there, and set out on his return to Europe, where he was received with almost royal honours.
In 1493 he set out on his second great voyage from Cadiz, with three large ships of heavy burden and fourteen caravels, carrying 1500 men. He discovered .the island of Dominica, and afterwards Mariegalante, Guadeloupe, and Porto Rico, and at length arrived at Hispaniola. Finding the colony destroyed, he built a fortified town, which he called, in honour of the queen, Isabella. He then left the island in order to make new discoveries, visited Jamaica, and returning after a voyage of five months, worn down with fatigue, found to his great joy that his brother Bartolommeo had arrived at Isabella with provisions and other supplies for the colony.
Meanwhile a general dissatisfaction had broken out among his companions, who, instead of the expected treasures, had found hardships and labour. This and news of calumnies being set on foot against him at home induced him to return to Spain, where his presence, and probably also the treasure he brought, silenced his enemies.
In May, 1498, he sailed with six vessels on his third voyage. Three of his vessels he sent direct to Hispaniola; with the three others he took a more southerly direction, and having discovered Trinidad and the continent of America, returned to Hispaniola, His colony had now been removed from Isabella, according to his orders, to the other side of the island, and a new fortress erected called St Domingo. Christopher Columbus found the colony in a state of confusion, but soon restored tranquillity. His enemies, in the meantime, endeavoured to convince his sovereigns that his plan was to make himself independent, and Christopher Columbus was not only displaced, but Francisco de Bobadilla, a new governor who had come from Spain, even sent him to that country in chains.
On his arrival in 1500 orders were sent directing him to be set at liberty and inviting him to court, but for this injurious treatment he never got redress, though great promises were made. After some time he was able to set out on his fourth and last voyage, in 1502, in four slender vessels supplied by the court. In this expedition he was accompanied by his brother Bartolommeo and his son Hernando. He encountered every imaginable disaster from storms and shipwreck, and returned to Spain, sick and exhausted, in 1504. The death of the queen soon followed, and he urged in vain on Ferdinand the fulfilment of his promises; but after two years of illness, humiliations, and despondency, Christopher Columbus died at Valladolid. His remains were transported, according to his will, to St Domingo, but on the cession of Hispaniola to France they were removed to Havana in Cuba in 1796. In 1899 they were carried back to Spain. Research Christopher Columbus
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
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