The Court of High Commission was an ecclesiastical court created by an Act of Elizabeth I in 1559, by which all spiritual jurisdiction was vested in the crown. Under Charles I and Laud it assumed illegal powers, and was abolished in 1641. Research Court of High Commission
High Church is a term applied to a party in the Church of England. It was applied first to a party among the younger clergy during the latter part of the reign of Elizabeth I who asserted that Calvinism was inconsistent with the ancient doctrine and constitution of the primitive church, and who claimed a divine right for episcopacy. Bishop Andrewes was the chief writer of this party, and Laud became its most active leader. The term now generally refers to those who exalt the authority and jurisdiction of the church, and attach great value to ecclesiastical dignities and ordinances, being more or less identified with the ritualistic party. Research High Church
The meeting of the Long Parliament (as it was afterwards called) in November 1640 ended the great days of the English monarchy, and sowed the seeds for the English Civil War. The Commons were determined on reform; they meant to put an end to the king's unconstitutional methods in both Church and State. Charles I himself, though he seldom faced facts, saw that some concessions would be necessary. But a real settlement was not achieved, chiefly because tempers were rising and the atmosphere soon became that of a revolution. Charles was partly to blame. He had no real desire for a lasting understanding with Parliament, and his shifty character aroused general distrust. But he found that the more he gave way to Parliament, the more it demanded. John Pym, a squire of Somerset, was the acknowledged leader of the Commons.
His enemies nicknamed him 'King Pym'. He was 'the first great popular organiser', for he used the press, the petition, and even the platform to support his cause. He now led the attack on the chief instruments of the late personal government. The judges who had upheld Charles's financial exactions in the Courts were arrested and imprisoned, and so was Archbishop Laud, who was beheaded in 1645. But the principal victim was Strafford. He was charged with having tried to 'subvert the fundamental laws and government of England and Ireland, and instead thereof to introduce an in March arbitrary and tyrannical government against law'. 1641 he was brought to Westminster Hall to be tried for high treason. But his accusers were at once faced with a difficult point. Strafford may have tried to 'subvert the laws'; but treason meant treason to the king, and had Strafford been a traitor to Charles? It was difficult to prove that he had, and as the trial proceeded it became clear that the verdict would be Not Guilty. But the Puritan majority in the House was determined that Strafford should die. Parliament therefore passed a special Bill of Attainder, condemning the minister to death without trial.
The Lords passed the Bill of Attainder, and it remained for the king to give or to withhold his consent. Some may think that it was Charles's duty to risk his life to defend Strafford. But the mob raged round Whitehall, howling for blood. Charles feared for the safety of the queen and his children, and he gave way. ' If my own person only were in danger', he told the Council, with tears in his eyes, 'I would gladly venture it to save Lord Strafford's life.' Three days later the earl was led to his execution in May 1641 in the presence of a crowd of 200000 people who had come to witness the end of 'Black Tom Tyrant'. No man ever died more bravely. 'I thank my God', he said, as he prepared to die, 'I am not afraid of death, but do as cheerfully put off my doublet at this time as ever I did when I went to bed.' The executioner offered to cover his eyes with a handkerchief. 'Thou shalt not bind my eyes.' said Strafford, 'for I will see it done.' And so he placed his head upon the block.
His misfortune, wrote Laud, was that 'he served a mild and gracious prince, who knew not how to be, or be made great'. That summerParliament was busy passing a number of Acts intended to make absolute government impossible for the future. One Act declared that the presentParliament could not be dissolved without its own consent; another - the Triennial Act - that in future Parliaments should be Called every three years. The three Courts by which the king and Laud had carried out their religious and financial measures were abolished - the Star Chamber, the Court of High Commission, and the Council of the North. Finally Ship-Money and other arbitrary forms of taxation were declared illegal. These abolitions of the year 1641 were the permanent, constructive work of the Puritan revolution; nor were the institutions then destroyed restored with the monarchy in 1660. Meanwhile another Bill had come up for discussion. A petition was presented to Parliament praying for the ending of episcopacy (that is, the rule of the Church by bishops) 'in all its roots and branches'.
The thorough-going Puritan members considered the petition, and a 'Root-and-Branch' Bill in 1641 was prepared, but it fell through. For now a new factor came into play. Hitherto a large majority, both of Lords and Commons, had been united in their opposition to the king. But this Bill divided parliamentarians for the first time. There were many who began to fear extremes; and a moderate party now sprang up. It was out of this debate on the Root-and- Branch Bill that the germs of the future Roundhead and Cavalier parties were formed. The extremists - the Roundheads - included Pym, Hampden, and Oliver Cromwell. The chief figures on the other side were LordFalkland and Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards the famous Earl of Clarendon, the future Chancellor and historian. Parliament adjourned for six months, but met again at the end of October. It had no sooner assembled than terrible news arrived from Ireland. Now that the stern hand of Strafford was withdrawn, the crushed Irish had risen against their lords. There was a sudden and horrible rebellion thousands of Protestants were massacred in cold blood. When this news was received in London it only served to increase the Puritanfury. Meanwhile the Commons drew up a Grand Remonstrance in November 1641, in which they recited the past acts of the king and his servants to which they objected - there were 201 items - and stated a programme for the future. Some of its clauses prayed the king to reduce the power of the bishops and to remove 'oppressions in religion'. Another clause asked His Majesty to employ ministers 'such as the Parliament may have cause to confide in' - which in later times solved the problem of disputes between king and Parliament.
All this shows that Parliament had considerably advanced its demands. During the months from November 1640 to September 1641 they, had succeeded in placing constitutional checks on the king's power. From November 1641 to August 1642 they were bent on seizing control of both Church and State, until they forced Charles to reply: ' If I granted your demands, I should be no more than the merephantom of a king.' The Grand Remonstrance was passed by a majority of only eleven - a fact which illustrates the growth of the anti-Puritan party.
The situation, at the end of 1641, was dangerous in the extreme. On the one hand the queen and the swaggering ' Cavaliers' of the Court were urging Charles to strike at King Pym and his fellow leaders before it was too late. On the other hand, London was a stronghold of Puritanism, and it was the London merchants who had felt the weight of Charles's taxation most heavily. The London ' prentices' and the king's swordsmen were itching to get at one another's throats. Never the less Pym proceeded steadily on his way. He was determined to deprive the king of the command of the militia; for it was obvious that if the Irish rebellion was to be crushed a militia must be called out. And once Charles had command of the national armed forces, would he not use them to crush Parliament and destroy English liberty for ever? Pym had no doubt that he would. A Militia Bill was therefore brought in, and - contrary to all English law and custom - it took the command of the military forces out of the king's hands. To this Charles of course refused his consent.
Early in January 1642 he took the queen's advice, and instructed the Attorney- General to impeach Pym, Hampden, and three other leading members of the Commons. The members were alarmed, but Charles promised them 'on the word of a king' that no violence should be done them. The next day - the 4th of January 1642 - he went down to the House with 400 swordsmen. He left his guard at the door, and walked in accompanied only by Prince Rupert, his German nephew. But the five members, warned of his intention, had fled by river. There was a dead silence as the king looked round. He asked the Speaker, Lenthall, where the missing members were. 'I have neither eyes to see', Lenthall replied, 'nor tongue to speak in this place, but as this House shall direct me.' There was another pause as Charles scanned the benches. 'I see', he said at last, 'all the birds are flown. I do expect you will send them to me as soon as they shall return hither.' Then, amid cries of 'Privilege, privilege', he walked out. By this revolutionary act the king had outlawed himself. All hope of reconciliation being now past, he determined to try the issue of war. He left his capital on the 10th of January, sent the queen out of the country, and took up his quarters at York. Parliament claimed the control of the militia and secured the command of the fleet. During the spring and summer of 1642 both sides were busy raising troops. The great strength of the Puritan cause was London. The city contained a tenth of the population of England - 500000 out of five million. The number of troops which London provided was more than sufficient to quell any Royalist opposition in the surrounding country. The London 'train-bands' therefore protected the Puritan leaders during the eight months that the king was gathering his army in the north - January to August 1642. And so the English Civil War started. Research Long Parliament
The Star Chamber was an English court founded in 1487 by Henry VII to punish the misdemeanours of sheriffs and juries, and all illegal assemblies and disturbances. It had jurisdiction over all cases civil and criminal except capital offences. However, under Laud it was miss-used and torture was regularly used to obtain confessions. The Star Chamber was abolished in 1641. Research Star Chamber
John Cotton was a Puritan clergyman, known as the Patriarch of New England. He was born in 1584 at Derby and died in 1652. He was educated at the University of Cambridge. In 1610 he was ordained a priest of the Church of England, and in 1612 he was chosen vicar of Saint Botolph's Church, Boston, Lincolnshire. He served there almost continuously until 1633, when, because of his Puritan leanings, he was summoned to appear before the archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud, at the Court of High Commission. Instead, John Cotton fled the country, and in September 1633 he arrived at the town of Boston, in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. There he was ordained teacher of the First Church, a post he held until his death.
Both in England and in Massachusetts, John Cotton had a wide reputation for learning and piety, and he wielded a powerful influence in New England. He approved the exile from Massachusetts of the Puritan clergyman Roger Williams and the religious reformer Anne Hutchinson, whom he had first supported in her controversy with church authorities.
John Cotton became one of the heads of the Congregational church in Massachusetts, promulgating his teachings in more than fifty volumes, including 'The Keys of the Kingdom of Heaven' published in 1644, 'The Way of the Churches of Christ in New England' published in 1645, and 'The Way of the Congregational Churches Cleared' published in 1648. He staunchly upheld the right of Puritan magistrates to enforce uniformity of religious beliefs. Research John Cotton
Peter Heylin was an English theologian. He was born in 1600 and died in 1662. He published his Microcosmos, or Description of the Globe, in 1625. In 1629 he became chaplain to Charles I, and obtained several benefices, from which he was ejected during the Civil War. At the Restoration he was made sub-dean of Westminster. He wrote a Life of Laud, a Defence of the Church of .England, and several theological works. Research Peter Heylin
Robert Baillie was a Scottish Presbyterian clergyman. He was born in 1599 at Glasgow and died in 1662. Though educated and ordained as an Episcopalian, he resisted the attempt of Archbishop Laud to introduce his Book of Common Prayer into Scotland, and joined the Presbyterian party. In 1638 he represented the presbytery of Irvine in the General Assembly at Glasgow, which dissolved Episcopacy in Scotland. In 1640 he was selected to go to London, with other commissioners, to prepare charges against Archbishop Laud for his innovations upon the Scottish Church. Of this, and almost all the other proceedings of his public life, he has left a minute account in his letters and journals, which form a most valuable collection for the history of his time. In 1642 he was appointed professor of divinity at Glasgow. He was a member of the Westminster Assembly of Divines, and attended its sittings from 1643 until 1646. After the Restoration, though made principal of his college through court patronage, he did not hesitate to express his dissatisfaction with the re-introduction of Episcopacy. Research Robert Baillie
William Laud was an English churchman. He was born in 1573 at Reading and died in 1645. He was made Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633, a post he held until 1641. He sought to establish uniformity of worship by enforcing conformity to the Church of England. He increased the power of the clergy and punished all dissenters. His persecutions of the Puritans, who maintained liberty of conscience, caused them to seek refuge in other lands and many went to America. He was impeached in 1642 and executed in 1645. Research William Laud
The English Civil War was an armed struggle between the supporters of the king (known as Cavaliers) and Parliamentarians (known as Roundheads), which erupted in 1642 and continued, with an interruption, until 1648. It arose from constitutional, religious, and economic differences between Charles I and the Members of the Long Parliament. Of these the most decisive factor was religion since the attempts of Laud to impose liturgical uniformity had alienated substantial numbers of clergy, gentry, and craftsmen. All sections of society were affected, though many in the localities desired peace not war, and sometimes families were divided by conflicting allegiances. The king's primary objective in 1642 was the capture of London, a Parliamentary stronghold. After an indecisive engagement at Edgehill, he eventually had to take refuge in Oxford, which became his wartime capital. His plan in 1643 to bring together Cavalier armies from Oxford, Newcastle, and the south-west, followed by a march on London, was not realised.
Meanwhile the balance was tipping toward the Roundheads, for by the Solemn League and Covenant they secured Scottish assistance, of value in 1644 at Marston Moor. Charles's attempt to march on London in 1644 was frustrated at the Battle of Newbury. With the formation of the New Model Army, the Roundheads were able to inflict a crushing defeat on the Cavaliers at the Battle of Naseby in 1645. Charles, having rejected terms previously offered him at the Uxbridge negotiations, eventually surrendered to the Scots near Newark in 1646 after Oxford had fallen. Charles' subsequent attempts to profit from divisions between the Parliamentary factions prevented a settlement from being reached in 1647. His escape to the Isle of Wight and 'Engagement' with the Scots sparked off the second phase of the war in 1648. This consisted of unsuccessful Cavalier risings in Wales, Essex, and Kent, and a Scottish invasion which came to grief at the Battle of Preston. Pride's Purge of Parliament then cleared the way for the trial and execution of the king and the establishment of the English Commonwealth. Research English Civil War
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Court of High Commission
