Bone manure was formerly one of the most important fertilizers in agriculture. The value of bones as manure arises chiefly from the phosphates and nitrogenous organic matters they contain; and where the soil is already rich in phosphatesbone is of little use as manure. It is of most service therefore where the soil is deficient in this respect, or in the case of crops whose rapid growth or small roots do not enable them to extract a sufficient supply of phosphate from the earth, turnips, for instance, or late-sown oats and barley. There are several methods for increasing the value of bones as manure, by boiling out the fat and gelatine, for instance, the removal of which makes the bones more readily acted on by the weather and hastens the decay and distribution of their parts, or by grinding them to dust or dissolving them in sulphuric acid, by which latter course the phosphates are rendered soluble in water.
Bones have long been used as manure in some parts of England, but only in a rude, unscientific way. It was in 1814 or 1815 that machinery was first used for crushing them in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, and bone-dust and dissolved bones were then largely employed as manures, great quantities of bones being imported into Great Britain for this purpose. Before being utilized in agriculture they were often boiled for the oil or fat they contain, which was used in the manufacture of soap and lubricants. Research Bone Manure
The Burnett prizes were prizes established by a Mr. Burnett, a merchant of Aberdeen, on his death in 1784. He left a fund from which were to be given every forty years two theological prizes (not less than 1200 pounds and 400 pounds) for the best two essays in favour of the evidence that there is an all-powerful, wise, and good Being, and this independent of all revelation.
The first competition was in 1815, when Dr. Brown, principal of Aberdeen University, gained the first prize, and Dr. John Bird Sumner, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury, the second. In 1855 the first prize was adjudged to the Reverend R. A. Thompson, Lincolnshire, and the second prize to the Reverend Dr. John Tulloch, afterwards principal of St Mary's College, St. Andrews. The destination of the fund was later altered by parliament, and from the late 19th century courses of lectures were delivered, the first, on light, being by Professor Gabriel Stokes in 1883. Research Burnett Prizes
The dissolution of the monasteries in England was carried out by Henry VIII between 1535 and 1539. This was an attack on Church property for three reasons. First, the monks were the main supporters of the Papal authority in England, and they were members of orders which were spread over Europe. It had proved possible to separate the English bishops and clergy from allegiance to the Pope; this was not possible with the monastic orders, which were international, not insular, institutions. The second reason was the wealth of the monasteries, which was the result of the pious bequest of many centuries. The cry against monastic wealth had been raised many times previously in English history, particularly by John Wycliffe and others from the time of Edward III and Richard II. The courtiers of Henry VIII and the rising middle class were greedy for land, and Henry VIII saw that by ministering to their greed he could make his new nobility and their new property a firm support of his Reformation. The third reason for ending the monasteries was
the reason given to Parliament: that the monks had outlived their day of usefulness and were abandoned to idleness and vice. There were over 600 religious houses in England, and no doubt there was some truth in this charge. Zealous churchmen had long known that all was not well with these ancient institutions. In Henry VII's reign the Oxford Reformers had rebuked monkish follies, and CardinalMorton had noted the 'incurable uselessness' of many of the smaller houses where the monks were idle and ignorant. CardinalWolsey had obtained a Papal Bull to visit the monasteries, and had begun to suppress some, intending to use their revenues for the benefit of education and the New Learning and to found new bishoprics. One of them, St. Frideswide's Priory at Oxford, he converted into Cardinal College (later Christ Church).
In 1535 Henry VIII made Thomas Cromwell his Vicar-General, 'with power to visit any monastery in England'. The character of Cromwell was sufficient guarantee that the visitation would not be conducted fairly. He knew what was expected of him; he was to be 'The Hammer of the Monks'. His agents hurried through England, visited some of the monasteries, and drew up an evil report. This report unfortunately no longer exists. Our only information is derived from Cromwell's note-books and from the letters of his agents, from which we may gather something of their methods. For example, Dr. Layton, vicar of Harrow-on-the-Hill, dashed through southern England from Gloucestershire to Rent between August and October 1535. He condemned monasteries wholesale, on insufficient evidence, although at the same time he did not scruple to accept bribes from some, or to help himself to plate and jewels from others.
However, Parliament was satisfied, and the country squires, anxious for the 'goods of the Church', shouted ' Down with them!' The Act dissolving 276 of the lesser monasteries of England in 1536 was the last important Act of the Reformation Parliament. In dissolving the smaller monasteries first, Henry VIII had cautiously tested his power. But his violent measures had by 1536 caused grave discontent, especially in the west and north, and in Parliament itself. His wholesale destruction of the smaller monasteries was followed by two popular uprisings. The first occurred in Lincolnshire, where the rebels were crushed by a military force under the Duke of Suffolk. The second rising, in Yorkshire in 1536, known as the Pilgrimage of Grace, was much more serious. The following year the famous shrine of Becket at Canterbury was attacked. Thomas Becket was declared in April 1538 'a false saint and a traitor to the Supreme Head of the Church'; his bones were burnt; his shrine pillaged and its offerings confiscated.
Then Henry VIII was ready to turn his attention to the greater monasteries, although Parliament had saved them earlier because of their good conduct. Cromwell and his agents in 1539 began a persecution of the abbots: many were induced to surrender their abbeys to the king; others could only be reduced by methods of terror. The Abbots of Reading and Colchester were tried for treason; the Abbot of Glastonbury for felony. All three were executed. The odious methods of Cromwell are well shown in some notes left in his own handwriting: 'To see that the evidence be well sorted and the indictments well drawn against the said abbots. The Abbot of Reading to be sent down to be tried and executed at Reading with his accomplices. The Abbot of Glaston to be tried at Glaston, and also executed there with his accomplices.' The last Abbot of Glastonbury, a pious, venerable man beloved in the countryside, was executed with two of his brethren on GlastonburyTor, after a mock trial in November 1539. These ferocities had the desired effect: many less brave spirits gave in, and soon there were no monasteries left. The dissolution of 616 religious houses was the greatest revolution in the ownership of land in England since the Norman Conquest. The monastic income has been variously estimated at between one-fifth and one-third of the total rental of England.
This newly acquired wealth the king might have used in developing public works, such as education. Some of it was spent in re-building the Navy; but the king's own greed and the greed of courtiers swallowed most of the spoil. A thousand newly enriched families became the nobility on which Henry in future relied for support. The 'Abbey' where the descendants or successors of these Tudor families now live is a name to be found in many an English village. But sad indeed was the fate of the original buildings. Some, like the great church at Tewkesbury, have been preserved in the form of parish churches; others have been partly preserved to form cathedrals. But the greater number were ruthlessly destroyed by their new possessors, their roofs despoiled for the valuable lead, their walls made quarries for new buildings, their treasures scattered, and their ruins left desolate. Whatever defence may be made for the suppression of the monastic orders, no excuse can be offered for this orgy of destruction, which deprived England of some of her noblest monuments.
It is probable that at least 15000 persons were cast adrift. These people went to swell the already large number of the unemployed, for whom Tudor statesmanship could find no better relief than the savage punishments inflicted on thieves and vagabonds. Some of the monks were given benefices or pensioned by the Government, but the pensions were not always paid; the occupants of the lesser houses fared worse than those of the greater. The hospitality which the monks had always given to the poor was now removed. There was nothing to take its place, and many monks and nuns joined the ranks of those who had formerly subsisted on their charity. Many gaps were left in national life, for the abbeys, said Aske 'were one of the beauties of this realm to all men and strangers passing through the same; all gentlemen much succoured in their needs with money, and in nunneries their daughters brought up in virtue. And such abbeys as were near the danger of seabanks were great maintainers of sea-walls and dykes, builders of bridges and highways, and such other things for the commonwealth.' Research Dissolution of the Monasteries
Peasgood Nonsuch is an English species of apple first produced by Mrs Peasgood of Lincolnshire who raised this apple around 1855 and in 1872 it was introduced to the market by Laxtons as 'one of the most handsome apples in cultivation.' The apples are very large fruit and are excellent for baking and crisp and juicy if eaten fresh. Research Peasgood Nonsuch
Alfred Tennyson was an eccentric English poet and Poet Laureate. He was born in 1809 at Somersby, Lincolnshire and died in 1892. He started writing poetry at the age of eight and had written most of a blankverse play by the age of fourteen. In 1827 he entered Cambridge, and his first published poetry appeared in ' Poems by Two Brothers'. At Cambridge, he made friends with Edward Fitzgerald, Thackeray, and Arthur Henry Hallam. In 1829 Alfred beat Thackeray, among others, for a poetry prize. The following year, his Poems, Chiefly Lyrical won some critical praise, and he met Emily Sellwood, the love of his life. Arthur Hallam introduced them and himself became engaged to Alfred's sister Emily.
In 1839, Alfred and Emily were officially engaged and by 1840, officially unengaged. Emily's father had put a stop to the match, supposedly because Alfred was too poor to marry. He was, but the real reason was probably the very unhappy marriage between Charles, Alfred's older brother, and Louisa Sellwood, Emily's sister. Charles was an opium addict, and though he eventually gave up the habit, by then Louisa had worked herself into a nervous collapse trying to help him. So Alfred and Emily suffered the pain of separation, which showed strongly in Alfred's poetry of the time. He threw himself into travelling and studying, and he eventually became proficient in several languages, including Persian and Hebrew.
By 1842, he found himself famous with the publication of his 'Poems'. Unfortunately, he had decided that his health was bad and let his doctors talk him into not writing or even really reading for almost two years. In 1849, his brother Charles was reconciled with his wife and the following year, on the 13th of June, Alfred and Emily married in great secrecy. By then, Wordsworth had died and the Court was looking for a new Poet Laureate. The job was first offered to the 87-year-old Samuel Rogers, who turned it down. Alfred's name was submitted with two others, but Prince Albert had read Alfred's poem 'In Memorium', and that tipped the balance in Alfred's favour. He loved being Poet Laureate, though he never quite got used to all the attention from complete strangers. Research Alfred Tennyson
Anne Askew was an English victim of religious persecution. She was born in 1521 and died in 1546. She was a daughter of Sir William Askew of Lincolnshire, and was married to a wealthy neighbour named Kyme, who, irritated by her Protestantism, drove her from his house. In London, whither she went probably to procure a divorce, she spoke against the dogmas of the old faith, and being tried was condemned to death as a heretic. Being put to the rack to extort a confession concerning those with whom she corresponded, she continued firm, and was then taken to Smithfield, chained to a stake, and burned. Research Anne Askew
Arthur Thistlewood was a British revolutionary. He was born in 1770 at Tupholme, Lincolnshire and died in 1820. After serving in the army abroad he returned to England, settled in London and joined other malcontents intent on revolution. In 1816 he was arrested for his part in an unsuccessful uprising, but was acquitted. Later he was imprisoned for challenging the home-secretary, Lord Sidmouth, to a duel. In 1820 he organised the Cato Street Conspiracy, was subsequently arrested, convicted and hanged for high-treason. Research Arthur Thistlewood
Captain John Smith was an English explorer and historical writer. He was born in 1579 at Willoughby, Lincolnshire and died in 1632. He fought against the Turks and was with Newport's expedition which founded Virginia in 1607, and on the return journey was imprisoned. Upon his release he became the practical head of Virginia colony. He explored the Chickahominy region and was taken prisoner by the Indian Powhatan, the tale of which forms the basis for the legend of Pocahontas - by his own account, CaptainJohn Smith recounts that he was released after the intercession of the PrincessPocahontas. In 1609 he had an accident and returned to England, and in 1614 was engaged in a voyage of discovery along the New England coast., and in 1617 engaged in a further voyage before retiring to London
He wrote voluminously, but is suspected of romantic exaggeration and colouring. His chief works were: 'A True Relation', 'Generall Historic of Virginia', and a 'Description of New England'. Research Captain John Smith
Christopher Addison was an English politician and surgeon. He was born in 1869 at Hogsthorpe, Lincolnshire and died in 1951. Educated at Harrogate and St Bartholomew's Hospital, London where he qualified, he was for a time professor of anatomy at University College, Sheffield and editor of the Quarterly Medical Journal. In 1910 he entered politics as Liberal member of parliament for Hoxton and in 1914 became parliamentary secretary to the Board of Education. He assisted Lloyd George in the scheme for National Health Insurance, and was appointed first secretary to the new Ministry of Munitions, and in 1917 head of the new Ministry of reconstruction. In 1919 Christopher Addison became Britain's first minister of health. In 1921 following difficulties with Lloyd George Christopher Addison resigned and joined the Labour Party. He was created a baron in 1937 and in 1940 assumed leadership of the Labour peers, in 1945 becoming leader of the House of Lords. Research Christopher Addison
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Bone Manure
