A cave, or cavern is an opening of some size in the solid crust of the earth beneath the surface. Caves are principally met with in limestone rocks, sometimes in sandstone and in volcanic rocks. Some of them have a very grand or picturesque appearance, such as Fingal's Cave in Staffordshire, others, such as the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, which incloses an extent of about 40 miles of subterranean windings, are celebrated for their great size and subterranean waters, others for their gorgeous stalactites and stalagmites; others are of interest to the geologist and archaeologist from the occurrence in them of osseous remains of animals no longer found in the same region, perhaps altogether extinct, or for the evidence their clay floors and rudely-sculptured walls, and the prehistoric implements and human bones found in them, offer of the presence of early man.
Caves in which the bones of extinct animals are found owe their origin, for the most part, to the action of rain-water on limestone rocks. The deposit contained in them usually consists of clay, sand, and gravel combined. In this are embedded the animal remains, and stones either angular or rounded. Some of the remains found in European caverns belong to animals now found only in the tropical or subtropical regions, and others are the remains of animals now living in more northerly areas; others, again, are the relics of extinct animals. Among the latter class of animals are the cave bear and lion, the mammoth and mastodon, species of rhinoceros, etc. Of others that have only migrated may be mentioned the reindeer, which is no longer found in Southern Europe; and the Hyoena crocuta, found in the Gibraltar caves, which now lives in South Africa. The ibex, the chamois, and a species of ground squirrel, are shown to have once lived in the Dordogne, but are now found only on the heights of the Alps and Pyrenees.
Thus it is evident that the geographical conditions of the country must have been very different from what they are now. Man's relation to these extinct animals, and his existence at the time these changes took place, are demonstrated by such discoveries as those of human bones and worked flints beneath layers of hyena droppings, as in Wokey's Hole, near Wells, England; mixed up indiscriminately, as in Kent's Hole, near Torquay, with bones of elephant, rhinoceros, hyena, etc; and by the fact that many bones of the extinct animals are split up, evidently for the sake of the marrow.
In the Dordogne and Savigne caves fragments of horn have been found bearing carved, or rather deeply scratched, outline figures of ibex, reindeer, and mammoth. Among the most remarkable bone-caves are those of Kirkdale, in Yorkshire; Kent's Hole, Wokey's Hole; of Franconia, in Bavaria; the banks of the Meuse, near Liege; and the south of France. Research Cave
The Marrow (Cucurbia Pepo ovifera) is an annual trailing plant of the gourd family grown for its fruits which are eaten as a vegetable. Research Marrow
The pumpkin or vegetable marrow (Cucurbita pepo, Cucurbita maxima) is several annual, creeping, trailing plants of the gourdgenus with heart shaped five lobed leaves and a large egg-shaped or globose yellow-orange edible fruit which is popularly cooked and eaten as a vegetable or in a pie and also hollowed out to make lanterns for Halloween. Research Pumpkin
Adipose tissue is one of the many different types of connective tissue found in the human body. Connective tissue composes the dermis of the skin. Unlike the cells of the epithelial layer of the epidermis, which are crowded close together, the cells of connective tissue are scattered far apart with many fibres between them. Adipose tissue is a metabolically active tissue that stores fat and releases it in response to a variety of nervous and hormonal stimuli. It also acts as an insulator to help maintain body temperature and acts as a protective padding in certain areas. Adipose tissue is also found in bonemarrow. Research Adipose tissue
The transfer of blood from one individual to another first became a practical proposition during the Great War. The recognition of four major blood groups indicated that there were limitations on blood transfusion which necessitated very careful examination of the blood of the two individuals concerned. In the early days of transfusion after preliminary grouping, the blood was transferred from the donor to the recipient by the ' direct' method, using a two-way tap and syringe, so that the blood was not exposed to the air and had no opportunity for clotting. The 'indirect' method was later introduced in which the donor's blood was received into a solution of sodium citrate which prevented it from clotting by inactivating the calcium. Within an hour or so the blood was then injected into the veins of the recipient. Prior to the second World War, most large hospital centres in Great Britain maintained a panel of blood donors who were willing to come to the hospital at any hour of the day or night for emergency transfusion. The relatives of patients also were called upon, if with the right blood group, to give their blood.
The necessities of war, and the greater demands of surgery for blood transfusion led to the establishment of ' blood banks', in which are stored large quantities of blood taken at a convenient time from thousands of volunteers. With suitable refrigeration, blood may be stored for three weeks with safety and such blood is quite suitable for the treatment of shock and conditions of blood loss. Certain other disorders, mainly medical conditions affecting the formation of red cells in the bonemarrow, are preferably treated with the transfusion of fresh blood: this seems to possess properties which become lost in storage. Blood transfusion performs a double purpose. It replaces the oxygen-carrying red cells and its fluidfraction, the plasma, contributes protein which maintains the circulating blood volume, thus preventing the escape of water into the tissues. Plasma or serum may be separated from the whole blood and dried. In this form it was used extensively during the Second World War because it could be stored indefinitely and could be reconstituted by the addition of distilled water when infusion was needed in the treatment of shock. By the extraction of the fluid portion of the whole blood, the cell content may be concentrated. Such a preparation is known as packed cells. This has become of particular value if it is necessary to raise the haemoglobin rapidly without raising the blood volume unduly. Such a procedure may be required in the treatment of severe anaemia arising from toxaemia. Research Blood Transfusion
Bones (or osseous material) serve a number of diverse purposes in the human anatomy. In addition to providing structure, protection, and support for the organs of the body, bones also house marrow, which produces blood cells. Within the bones are also stored the calcium deposits which the body may access, via resorption, when needed. Additionally, bones detoxify the system, by removing heavy metals, such as lead and arsenic, as well as other toxins, from the bloodstream. Osseous tissue itself is made of water (about 1/4 of the bone weight), organic material (about 1/3 of the bone weight, most of which is the protein, ossein) and inorganic minerals (calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium predominate, though iron, sodium, potassium, chlorine, and fluorine are also present in small amounts). Most bones (with the exception of those of the skull) are initially pre-formed in cartilage and are then ossified as the newborn develops.
Two basic classification methods exist to categorize the bones of the body. These two classification systems are based upon anatomical location (axial or appendicular), and shape (long, short, flat, and irregular). Axial bones are the eighty bones which lie along the central, vertical axis of the body and support and protect the head and torso and include the skull and the spinal column.
Appendicular bones include the one hundred twenty-six bones which comprise the appendages, including the shoulders and hips, arms and legs, hands and feet, and fingers and toes. The shape classifications include long bones (such as the radius, humerus, and femur), the short bones (such as the carpals, tarsals, and manual and pedal phalanges), flat bones (such as the sternum, cranium bones, and scapulae), and irregular
bones (such as the vertebrae). Research Bone
Dumdum fever (kala-azar) is a tropical fever common in north-east Africa and southern Asia, caused by the Leishmaniaparasite. The infection occurs chiefly in the bonemarrow and the lymphatic system. Symptoms include fever, anaemia and enlargment of the spleen and liver. The disease is often fatal if left untreated, but may be frequently successfully treated with compounds of antimony. Research Dumdum Fever
Abbreviations
Research Cave
