Byzantine art is the symbolic system which was developed by the early Greek or Byzantine artists out of the Christian symbolism. Byzantine Art arose in South-eastern Europe after Constantine the Great had made Byzantium the capital of the Roman Empire in 330 AD and ornamented that city, which was called after him, with all the treasures of Grecian art.
One of the chief influences in Byzantine art was Christianity, and to a certain extent Byzantine art may be recognized as the endeavour to give expression to the new elements which Christianity had brought into the life of men. The tendency towards Oriental luxuriance and splendour of ornament now quite supplanted the simplicity of ancient taste. Richness of material and decoration was the aim of the artist rather than purity of conception. Yet the classical ideals of art, and in particular the traditions of technical processes and methods carried to Byzantium by the artists of the Western Empire, held their ground long enough, and produced work pure and powerful enough, to kindle the new artistic life which began in Italy with Cimabue and Giotto.
With regard to sculpture the statues no longer displayed the freedom and dignity of ancient art. The true proportion of parts, the correctness of the outlines, and in general
the severe beauty of the naked figure, or of simple drapery in Greek art, were neglected for extravagant costume and ornamentation and petty details. Yet in the best period of Byzantine art, from the 6th to the 11th century, there is considerable spiritual dignity in the general conception of the figures. But sculpture was of second-rate importance at Byzantium, the taste of those times inclining more to mosaic work with the costliness and brilliant colours of its stones.
The first germ of a Christian style of art was developed in the Byzantine pictures. The artists, who appear to have seldom employed the living model, and had nothing real and material before them, but were obliged to find, in their own imaginations, conceptions of the external appearance of sacred persons, such as the mother of Christ or the apostles, could give but feeble renderings of their ideas. As they cared but little for a faithful imitation of nature, but were
satisfied with repeating what was once acknowledged as successful, it is not strange that certain forms, approved by the taste of the time, should be made, by convention, and without regard to truth and beauty, general models of the human figure, and be transmitted as such to succeeding times. In this way the artists in the later periods did not even aim at accuracy of representation, but were contented with stiff general outlines, lavishing their labour on ornamental parts.
Byzantine architecture may be said to have assumed its distinctive features in the church of St Sophia built by Justinian in the 6th century, and still existing as the chief mosque in Constantinople. It is more especially the style associated with the Greek Church as distinguished from the Roman.
The leading forms of the Byzantine style are the round arch, the circle, and in particular the dome. The last is the most conspicuous and characteristic object in Byzantine buildings, and the free and full employment of it was arrived at when by the use of pendentives the architects were enabled to place it on a square apartment instead of a circular or polygonal. In this style of building incrustation, the incrustation of brick with more precious materials, was largely in use. It depended much on colour and surface ornament for its effect, and with this intent mosaics wrought on grounds of gold or of positive colour are profusely introduced, while coloured marbles. and stones of various kinds are greatly made use of. The capitals are of peculiar and original design, the most characteristic being square and tapering downwards, and they are very varied in their decorations.
Byzantine architecture may be divided into an older and a newer (or Neo-Byzantine) style. The most distinctive feature of the latter ia that the dome is raised on a perpendicular circular or polygonal piece of masonry (technically the drum) containing windows for lighting the interior, while in the older style the light was admitted by openings in the dome itself. The Cathedral of Athens is an example of the Neo-Byzantine style.
In law fixtures are accessories annexed to houses or lands, which by the fact of their being so annexed become a part of the real property and pass to the freeholder, not being removable at will by the tenant or occupier of the property. The general rule of law is that whatever has been affixed to the premises or put into the land by a tenant during his occupancy cannot be removed without the landlord's consent. Large exceptions are made to this rule in favour of the tenant, covering generally fixtures for trade, for agricultural purposes, and for ornament or convenience; but the removal must not injure the land or buildings of the landlord. Research Fixtures
In the Roman Catholic church the golden rose is an ornament of gold consecrated by the pope on the fourth Sunday of Lent. It was originally a single flower of wrought gold, coloured red; afterwards the golden petals were decked with rubies and other gems; finally the form adopted was that of a thorny branch, with several flowers and leaves, and one principal flower at the top, all of pure gold. It is sent to some favoured prince, some eminent church, or distinguished personage. Research Golden Rose
A sundial or dial is an instrument for showing the hour of the day from the shadow thrown while the sun is shining by a stile or gnomon upon a graduated surface. The sundial has been known from the earliest times amongst Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Hebrews. From those eastern nations it came to the Greeks. It was introduced into Rome during the first Punic war.
Sundials are of various construction, horizontal, inclined, or upright, the principle in every case being to show the sun's distance from the meridian by means of the shadow cast by the stile or gnomon. The stile is made parallel with the earth's axis,and may be considered as coinciding with the axis of the diurnal rotation. Consequently as the sun moves westwards the shadow of the stile moves round in the opposite direction, falling on the meridian lines so marked as to represent the hours of the day. The sundial of course gives solar time, which, except on four days of the year, is slightly different from that of a well-regulated clock. Since at least 1900 sundials have been rather articles of curiosity or ornament than of use. Research Sundial
The abalone is the popular name for various species of the shell-fish of the Haliotidae family. They have a richly coloured shell yielding mother-of-pearl. This sort of Haliotis is also commonly called ear-shell, and in Guernsey the ormer. The abalone shell is found especially at Santa Barbara and other places on the southern Californian coast, and when polished makes a beautiful ornament. The mollusc itself is often eaten, and dried for consumption in China and Japan. Research Abalone
The click beetles, elaters or Skip-Jacks are beetles of the Elateridae family, related to the fire-flies, which when lying on their back, have the power of throwing themselves to a considerable height in the air and regaining their feet, by a rapid jerk accompanied by a clicking sound produced by the jumping mechanism in the thorax. The larvae, known as wire worms, live in the ground and some species feed on the roots of cereals damaging crops. When alarmed, the click beetle fakes death. They live in flowers, grass, and decaying wood and are almost always found singly. The fireflies of America belong to the family. They possess luminous properties, which are unlike those of the glow-worm, etc, being seated near the head. The Pyrophorus noctilucus, called cocuyo in Brazil, was formerly used as a personal ornament by ladies. Research Click Beetle
Cockspur-Thorn is the Crataegus crus-galli, a North American shrub which has long been cultivated in Britain as a shrubbery ornament. There are several varieties, which are admired for their snowy blossoms in May. Research Cockspur-Thorn
Luca Giordano was an Italian painter. He was born about 1632 at Naples and died in about 1705. A scholar of Spagnoletto, he studied the great Italian masters at Rome, and became the pupil of Peter of Cortona. Paul Veronese had afterwards great influence on his manner. He imitated the greatest masters so well that even connoisseurs were imposed upon. In 1679 he was employed by Charles II to ornament the Escurial, and at the court of Spain he became a great favourite. Giordano was especially successful in imitating the manner of Bassano, and of the Chevalier Massimo Stanzioni. After the death of Charles II he returned to his native country, where he died. His most celebrated pieces are his frescoes, in the Escurial, at Madrid, Florence, and Rome. Some of his finest paintings are at Dresden. Research Luca Giordano
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Abbreviations
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