Claude Bernard was a French physiologist. He was born 1813 and died in 1878. He studied at Paris and held in succession chairs of physiology in the Faculty of Sciences, the College of France, and the Museum. Amongst his many works may be cited his Researches on the Functions of the Pancreas, 1849; on the Sympathetic System, 1852; Experimental Physiology in its Relation to Medicine, 1855 to 56 ; On the Physiological Properties and Pathological Alterations of the various Liquids of the Organism, 1859; and his Nutrition and Development, 1860. Research Claude Bernard
In the literal sense, anatomy means simply a cutting up, but is now generally applied both to the art of dissecting or artificially separating the different parts of an organized body (vegetable or animal) with a view to discover their situation, structure, and economy; and to the science which treats of the internal structure of organized bodies. The branch which treats the structure of plants is called vegetable anatomy or phytotomy, and that which treats of the structure of animals animal anatomy or zootomy, a special branch of the latter being human anatomy or anthropotomy.
Comparative anatomy is the science which compares the anatomy of different classes or species of animals, as that of man with quadrupeds, or that of quadrupeds with fishes; while special anatomy treats the construction, form, and structure of parts in a single animal. The special anatomy of an animal may be studied from various standpoints: with relation to the succession of forms which it exhibits from its first stage to its adult form (developmental or embryotical anatomy), with reference to the general properties and structure of the tissues or textures (general anatomy, histology), with reference to the changes in structure of organs or parts produced by disease and congenital malformations (morbid or pathological anatomy), or with reference to the function, use, or purpose performed by the organs or parts (ideological or physiological anatomy).
According to the parts of the body described the different divisions of human anatomy receive different names; as, osteology, the description of the bones; myology, of the muscles; demology, of the ligaments and sinews; splanchnology, of the viscera or internal organs, in which are reckoned the lungs, stomach, and intestines, the liver, spleen, kidneys, bladder, pancreas, etc. Angiology describes the vessels through which the liquids in the body are conducted, including the blood-vessels, which are divided into arteries and veins, and the lymphatic vessels, some of which absorb matters from the bowels, while others are distributed through the whole body, collecting juices from the tissues and carrying them back into the blood. Neurology describes the system of the nerves and of the brain; dermatologytreats of the skin.
Among anatomical labours are particularly to be mentioned the making and preserving of anatomical preparations. Preparations of this sort can be preserved (1) by drying them and clearing away all muscular adhesions, etc, as is done with skeletons, the bones of which are sometimes washed with acids to give firmness and whiteness; (2) by putting them into liquids, as alcohol, spirits of turpentine, etc, as is done with the intestines and other soft parts of the body; (3) by injection, which is used with vessels, the course and distribution of which are to be made sensible and the shape of which is to be retained; (4) by tanning and covering with a suitable varnish, as the muscles.
Among the ancient writers or authorities on human anatomy may be mentioned Hippocrates the younger who lived between 460 and 377 BC, Aristotle who lived between 384 and 322 BC, Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria who lived about 300 BC Celsus who lived between 53 BC and 37 AD, and Galen of Pergamus who lived between 140 and 200, the most celebrated of all the ancient authorities on the science. From his time until the revival of learning in Europe in the fourteenth century anatomy was checked in its progress.
In 1315 Mondino, professor at Bologna, first publicly performed dissection, and published a System of Anatomy, which was a text-book in the schools of Italy for about 200 years. In the sixteenth century Fallopio of Padua, Eustachi of Venice, Yesalius of Brussels, Varoli of Bologna, and many others, enriched anatomy with new discoveries. In the seventeenth century Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood, Asellius discovered the manner in which the nutritious part of the food is conveyed into the circulation, while the lymphatic system was detected and described by the Dane T. Bartoline.
Until 1832 the law of Great Britain made very insufficient provision for enabling anatomists to obtain the necessary supply of subjects for dissection. An act of some years previously had, it is true , empowered a criminal court, when it saw fit, to give up to properly qualified persons the body of a murderer after execution for dissection. This, however, was far from supplying the deficiency, and many persons, tempted by the high prices offered for bodies by anatomists, resorted to the nefarious practice of digging up newly-buried corpses, and frequently, as in the case of the notorious Burke and Hare of Edinburgh, to murder. To remedy these evils a statute was passed in 1832, which made provision for the wants of surgeons, students, or other duly qualified persons, by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of the bodies of persons who die friendless in alms-houses, hospitals, etc. The act also appointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the anatomical schools, and required persons practising the operations to obtain a license. Relatives had a right under the law to effectually object to the anatomical examination of a body even though the deceased had expressed a desire for it.
C-peptide is a substance released by the pancreas into the bloodstream in equal amounts to insulin, therefore a test of C-peptide levels will show how much insulin the body is making. Research C-Peptide
Cystic fibrosis is a hereditary disorder of the exocrine glands. The disorder affects the mucus-producing glands in the pancreas, lungs, and intestines and is marked by production of very thick mucus, excess sweating (with accompanied loss of electrolytes), more concentrated saliva, and overactivity of the part of the nervous system that controls automatic actions. It is the most common life-threatening genetic disease among anglos, affecting roughly one in 2000 births.
Cystic fibrosis is caused by a defective recessive gene. A person must inherit the defective gene from each parent before any abnormality is apparent. If a person inherits the gene from only one parent, they are a carrier and have no symptoms. Research Cystic Fibrosis
The digestive system is responsible for processing food, breaking it down into usable proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, fats, and other substances, and introducing these into the bloodstream so that they can be used by the body. The digestive, or alimentary, tract begins at the mouth, where the teeth and tongue begin the breakdown of food, aided by saliva secreted by the salivary glands. The chewed food, combined with saliva, is swallowed, carrying it in peristaltic waves down the esophagus to the stomach. In the stomach, the food combines with hydrochloric acid which further assists in breaking it down. When the food is thoroughly digested, the fluid remaining, called chyme, is passed through the pylorus sphincter to the small intestine and large intestines. Within the long, convoluted intestinal canals, the nutrients are absorbed from the chyme into the bloodstream, leaving the unusable residue. This residue passes through the colon (where most of the water is absorbed into the bloodstream) and into the rectum where it is stored
prior to excretion. This solid waste, called faeces, is compacted together and, upon excretion, passes through the analcanal and the anus. Along the way through the digestive tract, the pancreas, spleen, liver, and gall bladder secrete enzymes which aid in the digestive process. Research Digestive System
Epithelium is an anatomical term for a basic type of bodily tissue. It comprises the external surface of the skin, the internal surfaces of the digestive, respiratory and urogenital systems, the closed serous cavities, the inner coats of the vessels, the acini and ducts of the secreting and excreting glands, the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. The constituent cells of an epithelium are always closely packed together and the intercellular substance is reduced to a minimum. The cells comprising an epithelium are arranged in one (simple epithelium) or more (stratified epithelium and transitional epithelium) layers, usually supported on a basementmembrane and united together by a cement-like substance which is chemically similar to the matrix or ground-substance of the connective tissues.
The epithelium serves various purposes. The epithelium of the skin (known as the epidermis) serves primarily to protect the underlying tissue (the true skin, nerves and vessels which it contains). Th epithelium of the salivary glands, the pancreas, the gastric glands and the glands of the small intestine are comprised of cells which prepare the digestive juices. The cells comprising the epithelium of the intestinal villi are concerned with the absorption of the products of digestion. The cells of the epitheliums of the serous cavities provide a smooth, moist surface. Rather unusually in the body, the epithelium is devoid of a blood supply Research Epithelium
Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas and released into the bloodstream. It promotes the uptake of glucose from the blood by the body cells. A lack of insulin results in glucose being neither consumed as fuel nor adequately stored, but instead the glucose accumulates in the blood until it spills over into the urine. An excess of insulin dangerously decreases the amount of glucose in the blood. Research Insulin
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