Adulteration is a term not only applied in its proper sense to the fraudulent mixture of articles of commerce, food, drink, drugs, seeds, etc, with noxious or inferior ingredients, but also by magistrates and analysts to accidental impurity, and even in some cases to actual substitution.
The chief objects of adulteration are to increase the weight or volume of the article, to give a colour which either makes a good article more pleasing to the eye or else disguises an inferior one, to substitute a cheaper form of the article, or the same substance from which the strength has been extracted, or to give it a false strength.
Among the adulterations which were commonly practised around 1905 for the purpose of fraudulently increasing the weight or volume of an article are the following: Bread was adulterated with alum or sulphate of copper, which gives solidity to the gluten of damaged or inferior flour; with chalk or carbonate of soda to correct the acidity of such flour; and with boiled rice or potatoes, which enables the bread to carry more water, and thus to produce a larger number of loaves from a given quantity of flour. Wheatflour is adulterated with other inferior flours, as the flour from rice, bean, Indian-corn, potato, and with sulphate of lime, alum, etc. Milk was usually adulterated with water. The adulterations generally present in butter consisted of an undue proportion of salt and water, lard, tallow, and other fats; when of poor quality it was frequently coloured with a little annatto, and, at times, with the juice of carrots. Genuine butter should not contain less than 80 percent of butter-fat. Cheese was also coloured with annatto and other substances. Tea was adulterated chiefly in China with sand, iron-filings, chalk, gypsum, Chinaclay, exhausted tea leaves, and the leaves of the sycamore, horse-chestnut, and plum, whilst colour and weight were added by black-lead, indigo, Prussian-blue (one of the deleterious ingredients used by the Chinese in converting the lowest qualities of black into green teas), gum, turmeric, soapstone, catechu, and other substances.
Confections were adulterated with flour and sulphate of lime. Preserved vegetables were kept green and poisoned by salts of copper. The acridity of mustard is commonly reduced by flour, and the colour of the compound is improved by turmeric. Pepper was adulterated with linseed-meal, flour, mustard husks, etc. Colour was given to pickles by salts of copper, acetate of copper, etc. Ale was adulterated with common salt, Cocculus Indicus, grains of paradise, quassia, and other bitters, sulphate of iron, alum, etc. Porter and stout were mixed with sugar, treacle, salt, and an excess of water. Brandy was diluted with water, and burned sugar was added to improve the colour; sometimes bad whisky was flavoured and coloured so as to resemble brandy, and sold under its name.
Gin was mixed with excess of water, and flavouring matters of various kinds, with alum and tartar, were added. Rum was diluted with water, and the flavour and colour kept up by the addition of cayenne and burned sugar. For champagnegooseberry and other inferior wines were often substituted. Port was manufactured from red Cape and other inferior wines, the body, flavour, strength, and colour being produced by gum-dragon, the washings of brandy casks, and a preparation of German bilberries. Cheap brown sherry was mixed with Cape and other low-priced brandies, and was flavoured with the washings of brandy casks, sugar-candy, and bitter almonds. Pale sherries were produced by gypsum, by a process called plastering, which removes the natural acids as well as the colour of the wine. Other wines were adulterated with elderberry, logwood, Brazil-wood, cudbear, red beetroot, etc, for colour; with lime or carbonate of lime, carbonate of soda, carbonate of potash, and litharge, to correct acidity; with catechu, sloe-leaves, and oak-bark for astringency; with sulphate of lime and alum for removing colour; with cane-sugar for giving sweetness and body; with alcohol for fortifying; and with ether, especially acetic ether, for giving bouquet and flavour.
Medicines, such as jalap, opium, rhubarb, cinchonabark, scammony, aloes, sarsaparilla, squills, etc, were mixed with various foreign substances. Castor-oil has been adulterated with other oils; and inferior oils were often. mixed with cod-liver oil. Cantharides were often mixed with golden-beetle and also artificially-coloured glass.
The adulteration of seeds was largely practised also, the seed which forms the adulterant being of course of the most worthless kind that can be had. Thus turnip-seed was mixed with rape, wild mustard, or charlock, which are steamed and kiln-dried to destroy their vitality, so as to evade detection in the progress of growth; old and useless turnip-seed was also used fraudulently mixed with fresh seeds. Clover was also much mixed with plantain and mere weeds.
Acts against adulteration have been passed in various countries and at various times. In Britain there was a law against it as early as 1267. Research Adulteration
Blank Verse is verse without rhyme. It was first introduced into English from Italian by the Earl of Surrey in the 16th century. Blank verse was first employed in the English drama 'Gorboduc', written by Sackville in 1561. The most common form of English blank verse is the decasyllabic, such as that of Milton's Paradise Lost, or of the dramas of Shakespeare. Erom Shakespeare's time it has been the kind of verse almost universally used by dramatic writers, who often employ an additional syllable, making the lines not strictly decasyllabic. The term is not applied to the Anglo-Saxon and Early English alliterative unrhymed verse. Research Blank Verse
A cross is one straight body laid at any angle across another, or a symbol of similar shape. Among the ancients a piece of wood fastened across a tree or upright post formed a cross, on which were executed criminals of the worst class. It had, therefore, a place analogous to that of the modern gallows as an instrument of infamous punishment until it acquired honour from the crucifixion of Christ. The custom of making the sign of the cross in memory of Christ may be traced to the 3rd century. Constantine had crosses erected in public places, palaces, and churches, and adopted it, according to a legend, as the device for a banner (labarum) in consequence of a dream representing it as the symbol of victory. In his time also Christians painted it at the entrance of their houses as a sign of their faith, and subsequently the churches were for the most part built in the form of a cross. It did not, however, become an object of adoration until after the alleged discovery of the true cross by the EmpressHelena in 326. Its adoption as the Christian symbol may be held to connect itself with the fact that it was used emblematically long before the Christian era, in the same way that traces of belief in a trinity, in a war in heaven, in a paradise, a flood, a Babel, an immaculate conception, and remission by the shedding of blood, are to be found diffused amongst widely sundered peoples. The general meaning attached to the sign appears to have been that of life and regeneration.
Since its adoption by Christianity it has undergone many modifications of shape, and has been employed in a variety of ways for ornaments, badges, heraldic bearings, etc. After the introduction of the cross into the military ensigns of the Crusaders its use in heraldry became frequent, and its form was varied more than that of any other heraldic ordinary, some of the varieties being of great beauty.
The name cross is also given to various architectural structures, of which a cross in stone was a prominent feature; thus we have market crosses, preaching crosses, monumental crosses, etc.
Didactic Poetry is that kind of poetry which professes to give a kind of systematized instruction on a definite subject or range of subjects. Thus the Georgics of Virgil and the De Rerum Natura of Lucretius profess to give, the one a complete account of agriculture and kindred arts, the other a philosophical explanation of the world. In a larger sense of the word most great poems might be called didactic, since they contain a didactic element in the shape of history or moral teaching, Dante's Divina Cornmedia, Milton's Paradise Lost, or Goethe's Faust, for example. The difference may be said to be this, that in the one case the materials are limited and controlled by nothing but the creative fancy of the poet, while in the other they are much more determined by the actual nature of the subject treated of. Research Didactic Poetry
An epic is a poetical narrative of heroic achievements. It is largely dramatic in character, but embraces a greater area and admits many incidents, each of which might serve as a dramatic plot.
Some authorities widen the definition of an epic so as to include not only long narrative poems of romantic or supernatural adventure, but also those of a historical, legendary, mock-heroic, or humorous character. An epic is distinguished from a drama in so far as the author frequently speaks in his own person as narrator; and from lyrical poetry by making the predominant feature the narration of action rather than the expression of emotion.
Among the more famous epics of the world's literature may be noted: Homer's Iliad and Odyssey; Virgil's AEneid; the German Nibelungenlied; the Anglo-Saxon poem of Beowulf; the French Song of Roland; Dante's Divina Commedia; Tasso's Gierusalemme Liberata; Ariosto's OrlandoFurioso; Milton's Paradise Lost; Spenser's Fairy Queen; Camoens' Lusiads (Portuguese); and Firdusi's Shah Nameh (Persian). Hesiod's Theogony; the poetic Edda; the Finnish Kalewala; the Indian Mahabharata may be described as collections of epic legends. The historical epic has an excellent representative in Barbour's Bruce; and specimens of the mock-heroic and humorous epic are found in The Battle of the Frogs and Mice; Reynard the Fox; Butler's Hudibras; and Pope's Rape of the Lock. Research Epic
The Jehovah's Witnesses are a religious movement, first known as Bible Students, organised in the early 1870s by Charles Taze Russell in Pittsburgh. Jehovah's Witnesses accept the Bible as their sole authority, worshipping Jehovah and acknowledging Jesus Christ as God's son and spokesman. They believe that 144000, the Christian congregation, will rule with Christ in his heavenly kingdom over the rest of an obedient mankind, who will live on a paradise earth. They do not engage in politics or blood transfusions and are pacifists. Research Jehovah's Witnesses
Bird of Paradise is the name for members of a family of birds of splendid plumage allied to the crows, inhabiting New Guinea and the adjacent islands. The family includes eleven or twelve genera and a number of species, some of them remarkably beautiful. The largest species is over 60 centimetres in length. The king bird of paradise (Paradisea regia) is possibly the most beautiful species, but is rare. It has a magnificent plume of feathers, of a delicate yellow colour, coming up from under the wings, and falling over the back like a jet of water. The feathers of the Paradisea major and Paradisea minor are those chiefly formerly worn in plumes. These splendid ornaments are confined to the male bird. Research Bird of Paradise
Conirostres are a tribe of hard-billed birds characterised by a thick and strong bill, more or less conical in form, and in general devoid of any notch at the tip. The feet are robust and formed more for perching than walking. They feed principally on seeds and grain and also birds and insects, the nestlings of nearly species being fed on insects. The best-known genera are the larks, tits, finches, sparrows, goldfinches, linnets, bullfinches, crossbills, starlings, crows, and birds of paradise. Research Conirostres
Epimachus is a genus of slender-billed (tenuirostral) birds of the hoopoe family, resembling the birds of paradise in the exceeding luxuriance and brilliancy of their plumage. Research Epimachus
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Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
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