Phrenology (craniology) is the study of the external form of the humanskull, as indicative of mental powers and moral qualities. It was propounded by Franz Gall, a German physician around 1796, who enumerated some thirty faculties of the humanmind. He believed the configuration of the skull to correspond closely with that of the brain, and declared that mental characteristics are recorded in relief upon the outer surface of the cranial bones. Johann Spurzheim, a disciple of Franz Gall, constructed a scalp chart, showing thirty-five areas, each of which he supposed to be associated with a special faculty. In 1807 a commission appointed by the Paris Institute to investigate the claims of Franz Gall and Johann Spurzheim reported unfavourably; but Dr George Combe of Edinburgh became a convert, and contributed largely to the temporary popularity of Franz Gall's doctrines. Franz Gall was a skilful anatomist and a careful recorder of clinical and pathological observations, and his deductions stimulated research, and in a manner led to the more accurate localisation of brain functions. Research Phrenology
Claude Bernard was a French physiologist. He was born 1813 and died in 1878. He studied at Paris and held in succession chairs of physiology in the Faculty of Sciences, the College of France, and the Museum. Amongst his many works may be cited his Researches on the Functions of the Pancreas, 1849; on the Sympathetic System, 1852; Experimental Physiology in its Relation to Medicine, 1855 to 56 ; On the Physiological Properties and Pathological Alterations of the various Liquids of the Organism, 1859; and his Nutrition and Development, 1860. Research Claude Bernard
Henry Charlton Bastian was an English physician and biologist. He was born in 1837 at Truro in 1837 and died in 1915. He was educated at Falmouth and at University College, London, where he was assistant-curator in the museum from 1860 until 1863. He obtained the degree of M.A. in 1861 from the University of London, graduating subsequently in medicine at the same university (M.B. 1863, M.D. 1866). In 1864 to 1866 he was a medical officer in the then Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum (now Broadmoor Secure Hospital), and in the latter year was appointed lecturer on pathology and assistant-physician in St Mary'sHospital. In 1867 he became professor of pathological anatomy in University College, subsequently he was also professor of clinical medicine, and he was appointed to the chair of medicine and clinical medicine. Apart from numerous contributions to medical and other periodicals, and to Quain's Dictionary of Medicine, he wrote The Modes of Origin of Lowest Organisms (published in 1871); The Beginnings of Life (published in 1872); Evolution and the Origin of Life (published in 1874); Lectures on Paralysis from Brain Disease (published in 1875); and The Brain as an Organ of Mind (published in 1880), which was translated into French and German. He was also an advocate for spontaneous generation. Research Henry Bastian
Rudolf Virchow was a German pathologist and politician. He was born in 1821 and died in 1902. He was professor of pathological anatomy at Berlin in 1856 and proved the cellular theory applicable in pathology as well as in physiology. Research Rudolf Virchow
Theodore Ludwig Wilhelm Bischoff was a German anatomist and physiologist. He was born in 1807 at Hanover and died in 1882. He became professor of comparative and pathological anatomy at Bonn in 1836; of anatomy at Giessen in 1844; and from 1855 to 1878 he occupied a chair at Munich. He was the author of several treatises, and gained distinction by his researches in embryology. Research Theodore Bischoff
Adenoids is the pathological enlargement of the lymphoid tissue, arranged as a series of folds behind the opening of the auditory tube in the nasopharynx; also known as the pharyngeal tonsils. Research Adenoids
In the literal sense, anatomy means simply a cutting up, but is now generally applied both to the art of dissecting or artificially separating the different parts of an organized body (vegetable or animal) with a view to discover their situation, structure, and economy; and to the science which treats of the internal structure of organized bodies. The branch which treats the structure of plants is called vegetable anatomy or phytotomy, and that which treats of the structure of animals animal anatomy or zootomy, a special branch of the latter being human anatomy or anthropotomy.
Comparative anatomy is the science which compares the anatomy of different classes or species of animals, as that of man with quadrupeds, or that of quadrupeds with fishes; while special anatomy treats the construction, form, and structure of parts in a single animal. The special anatomy of an animal may be studied from various standpoints: with relation to the succession of forms which it exhibits from its first stage to its adult form (developmental or embryotical anatomy), with reference to the general properties and structure of the tissues or textures (general anatomy, histology), with reference to the changes in structure of organs or parts produced by disease and congenital malformations (morbid or pathological anatomy), or with reference to the function, use, or purpose performed by the organs or parts (ideological or physiological anatomy).
According to the parts of the body described the different divisions of human anatomy receive different names; as, osteology, the description of the bones; myology, of the muscles; demology, of the ligaments and sinews; splanchnology, of the viscera or internal organs, in which are reckoned the lungs, stomach, and intestines, the liver, spleen, kidneys, bladder, pancreas, etc. Angiology describes the vessels through which the liquids in the body are conducted, including the blood-vessels, which are divided into arteries and veins, and the lymphatic vessels, some of which absorb matters from the bowels, while others are distributed through the whole body, collecting juices from the tissues and carrying them back into the blood. Neurology describes the system of the nerves and of the brain; dermatologytreats of the skin.
Among anatomical labours are particularly to be mentioned the making and preserving of anatomical preparations. Preparations of this sort can be preserved (1) by drying them and clearing away all muscular adhesions, etc, as is done with skeletons, the bones of which are sometimes washed with acids to give firmness and whiteness; (2) by putting them into liquids, as alcohol, spirits of turpentine, etc, as is done with the intestines and other soft parts of the body; (3) by injection, which is used with vessels, the course and distribution of which are to be made sensible and the shape of which is to be retained; (4) by tanning and covering with a suitable varnish, as the muscles.
Among the ancient writers or authorities on human anatomy may be mentioned Hippocrates the younger who lived between 460 and 377 BC, Aristotle who lived between 384 and 322 BC, Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria who lived about 300 BC Celsus who lived between 53 BC and 37 AD, and Galen of Pergamus who lived between 140 and 200, the most celebrated of all the ancient authorities on the science. From his time until the revival of learning in Europe in the fourteenth century anatomy was checked in its progress.
In 1315 Mondino, professor at Bologna, first publicly performed dissection, and published a System of Anatomy, which was a text-book in the schools of Italy for about 200 years. In the sixteenth century Fallopio of Padua, Eustachi of Venice, Yesalius of Brussels, Varoli of Bologna, and many others, enriched anatomy with new discoveries. In the seventeenth century Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood, Asellius discovered the manner in which the nutritious part of the food is conveyed into the circulation, while the lymphatic system was detected and described by the Dane T. Bartoline.
Until 1832 the law of Great Britain made very insufficient provision for enabling anatomists to obtain the necessary supply of subjects for dissection. An act of some years previously had, it is true , empowered a criminal court, when it saw fit, to give up to properly qualified persons the body of a murderer after execution for dissection. This, however, was far from supplying the deficiency, and many persons, tempted by the high prices offered for bodies by anatomists, resorted to the nefarious practice of digging up newly-buried corpses, and frequently, as in the case of the notorious Burke and Hare of Edinburgh, to murder. To remedy these evils a statute was passed in 1832, which made provision for the wants of surgeons, students, or other duly qualified persons, by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of the bodies of persons who die friendless in alms-houses, hospitals, etc. The act also appointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the anatomical schools, and required persons practising the operations to obtain a license. Relatives had a right under the law to effectually object to the anatomical examination of a body even though the deceased had expressed a desire for it.
Empyema is a pathological term describing a collection of pus in a cavity, especially applied to pus in the pleural cavity of the lung. Research Empyema
Abbreviations
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