Catholic Emancipation was the abolition of those civil and ecclesiastical restraints to which the Roman Catholics of Great Britain, and particularly of Ireland, were once subjected. By the statutes of William III. Roman Catholics were forbidden to hold property in land, and their spiritual instructors were open to the penalties of felony; and although latterly these restrictions had not been enforced, they remained unrepealed in England until 1778. The proposal to repeal similar enactments on the Scotch statute-books was delayed by the strenuous opposition of the Protestant associations, in connection with which the Lord Gordon riots occurred. In 1791, however, a bill was passed allowing Roman Catholics who took the oath of allegiance to hold landed property, enter the legal profession, and enjoy freedom of education.
In Ireland the Roman Catholics had been even more unjustly treated. Their public worship was proscribed, all offices and the learned professions were closed against them, they were deprived of the guardianship of their children, and if they had landed estates they were forbidden to marry Protestants. Burke and a strong body of followers took up their cause, and in 1792 and 1793 the worst of the disabilities were removed by the Irish parliament. Restraints on worship, education, and disposition of property were removed; they were admitted to the franchise, and to some of the higher civil and military offices, and to the honours and endowments of the Dublin University. They continued to be excluded, however, from thirty public offices, and from parliament = an arrangement which could not be changed without a repeal of the Corporation and Test Acts. It was part of Pitt's scheme when the union with Ireland was formulated in 1799 to admit Irish Roman Catholics to the parliament of the United Kingdom and to offices of state.
To this proposal, however, George III. was strongly hostile, and in 1801 Pitt was compelled to resign. Between that year and 1828 numerous attempts were made to abolish remaining disabilities, but without success, the Lords throwing out the bills passed latterly in the Commons, and George IV proving not less unyielding than his father. At length, on April the 10th 1829 an emancipation bill was carried through the Commons by Mr. Peel, and through the Lords by the Duke of Wellington. By this act Catholics became eligible to all offices of state, excepting the lord-chancellorships of England and Ireland, the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, the office of regent or guardian of the United Kingdom, and that of High Commissioner to the Church of Scotland. They were still excluded from the right of presentation to livings, and all places connected with the ecclesiastical courts and establishment. The church patronage attached to any office in the hands of a Catholic was vested in the Archbishop of Canterbury. Attached to the bill was a clause for the gradual suppression of the Jesuits and monastic orders (religious establishments of females excepted). During the 20th century full emancipation was realised. Research Catholic Emancipation
Corn Laws are various enactments designed to ensure an adequate supply of cereal foods to a country, usually by protection allotted to its own farmers.
In Britain the name was commonly given to certain statutes passed to protect the agricultural interest in Britain. The first form of interference by legislative enactment with the corn-trade in England, beginning soon after the Conquest, was the prohibition of exportation, an expedient in those times to prevent scarcity in a sudden emergency. The exportation of grain was prohibited in the reign of Edward III in 1360-61, Calais and other appointed ports being excepted. This provision was relaxed by a statute of Richard II in 1394, by which exportation was permitted from all ports not excepted by royal proclamation.
In 1436, under Henry VI, the exportation of grain was permitted without license whenever the price of wheat did not exceed 6s. 8d per quarter, and barley 3s. 4d. In 1463 a statute of Edward IV prohibited importation until the price exceeded the limit at which exportation was permitted. This was the beginning of protection, properly so called.
At the restoration of Charles II duties were imposed both on exportation and importation, while the old principle of a standard price, beyond which exportation was prohibited, was retained. At the Revolution a new policy still more favourable to the agricultural interest was adopted. By act 1 William and Mary, cap xii., a bounty was granted on the exportation of corn, and the duties on exportation were abolished. The amount of the bounty was 5s. for every quarter of wheat exported while the price was at or under 48s, with corresponding prices for other grains.
The exportation of grain reached its highest point about 1750. From this period the country, which had always been normally a grain-exporting country, began, on account of the increase of population and expansion of mechanical industries, to fall off in this respect, and in 1778 became permanently a grain-importing country. From this time the main efforts of the agricultural interest, largely represented in the parliament and the ruling classes of the kingdom, were concentrated on obtaining the imposition of prohibitory duties on foreign grain. In 1804, for instance, if the price of corn was below 63s. a prohibitory duty of 24s. 3d. was laid on what was imported; if between 63s and 66s, a duty of 2s. 6d; and only when the price at home had risen as high as 66s per quarter was the foreign grain allowed to pass at a nominal duty of 6d. With variations of more or less importance this sliding-scale of prohibitory duties continued in force until 1846, when Sir Robert Peel, influenced by the corn-law repeal agitation, and more especially by the Anti-Corn-law League, headed by Cobden and Bright, carried a measure repealing the duty on imported corn, except a nominal sum of 1s per quarter, which also in 1869 was done away with, but was temporarily re-imposed in 1902-1903. Research Corn Laws
The word Encyclopaedia (Encyclopedia) was first defined in Sir Thomas Elyot's LatinDictionary (1538) as 'that lernynge whiche comprehendeth all lyberall science and studies.' It was first used as the title of a book by Johann Heinrich Alsted in 1608, by which time it had acquired its modern meaning of a book covering every branch of humanknowledge. The term is also, however, applied to a work confined to some particular branch of knowledge. The distinction between an encyclopaedia and a dictionary is that the former explains subjects and the latter explains words, a dictionary being the product of the work of a philologist. And the distinction between a glossary and an encyclopaedia is one of depth, the glossary being much more concise and often restricted to a particular subject, for example horticulture.
The work of an encyclopaedist is some what analogous to that of a chef. Ingredients, in the form of information, is sourced from suppliers - existing data sources - processed and blended together, much as a chef may peelcook and blend vegetables, herbs, spices, meats and fish to form a new dish so the information is paraphrased, blended, corroborated and written down forming a new article. Much as a top class chef takes great care to select quality raw ingredients for his dishes, so too does the top class encyclopaedist take great care to ensure the quality and reliability of the information he sources. Research Encyclopaedia
A knife is a cutting instrument, which in its simplest form comprises a blade with one long edge sharpened, fitted into a handle. A typical household knife is comprised of a blade, fitted into a handle separated by a bolster, and may be of one of three basic designs: back pointed, cutting edge pointed or tip pointed, with a smooth, scalloped or serrated cutting edge, all of which are suited to varying tasks. Scalloped edged blades are suited for cutting soft food which have a hard or firm peel such as bread or bacon. Serrated edged blades perform with a sawing action and facilitate a first cut and are suitable for cutting soft and tough foods such as tomatoes and also cooked steaks. Research Knife
In cartography, projections are ways of representing the earth's surface on a map. Because the earth is round, any map distorts the area it represents (just as flattening out an orangepeel distorts its original shape). Only a globe can be really accurate. Different types of projection have been worked out, each suited to a particular purpose. The two main ones are Conical and Cylindrical. The former shows each hemisphere as a cone which has been unrolled. A Cylindrical Projection shows the earth as though it were an unrolled cylinder. Mercator's projection is cylindrical. Its main fault is that it makes the Equator out to be the same length as all other latitudes, even those near the Poles, which are really only a few miles long. Thus countries near the Poles appear far larger than they really are. Research Projections
Citrus is a genus of trees and shrubs of the rue family, natural order Aurantiacese which includes the lemon, orange, lime and tangerine. They are widely cultivated for their edible fruit. They are characterized by simple ovate acuminate leaves or leaflets united by a distinct joint to the leaf-like stalk; by having the stamens united by their filaments into several irregular bundles, and by yielding a pulpy fruit with a spongy rind. Citrus medica is the citron. Other species are the lemon (Citrus limonum), the sweet orange (Citrus aurantium), the bitterorange (Citrus vulgaris), the shaddock (Citrus decumana}, and the forbidden fruit (Citrus paradisi), sometimes used as an ornamental addition to dessert. The genus Citrus furnishes the essential oils of orange and lemon peels, of orange flowers, of citronpeel, of bergamot, and oil of orange leaves - all much esteemed in perfumery. Research Citrus
Benjamin Disraeli (LordBeaconsfield) was a British statesman and writer. He was born in 1804 at London and died in 1881. Of Jewish extraction, he was the eldest son of Isaac D'Israeli, author of the Curiosities of Literature. He attended for a time a private school, and was first destined for the law, but showing a decided taste for literature he was allowed to follow his inclination. In 1826 he published Vivian Grey, his first novel; and subsequently travelled for some time, visiting Italy, Greece, Turkey, and Syria, and gaining experiences which were afterwards reproduced in his books. His travels and impressions are embodied in a volume of letters addressed to his sister and his father. In 1831 another novel, The Young Duke, came from his pen. It was followed at short intervals by Contarini Fleming, Alroy, Henrietta Temple, Venetia, The revolutionary Epic (a poem), etc.
In 1832, and on two subsequent occasions, he appeared as candidate for the representation of High Wycombe, with a programme which included vote by ballot and triennial parliaments, but was unsuccessful. His political opinions gradually changed: in 1835 he unsuccessfully contested Taunton as a Tory. In 1837 he gained an entrance to the House of Commons, being elected for Maidstone. His first speech in the house was treated with ridicule; but he finished with the prophetic declaration that the time would come when they would hear him. During his first years in parliament he was a supporter of Peel; but when Peel pledged himself to abolish the corn-laws, Benjamin Disraeli became the leader of the protectionists.
About this time he became a leader of what was known as the 'Young England' party, the most prominent characteristic of which was a sort of sentimental advocacy of feudalism. This spirit showed itself in his two novels of Coningsby and Sybil, published respectively in 1844 and 1845. Having acquired the manorpf Hughenden in Buckinghamshire, he was in 1847 elected for this county, and he retained his seat until raised to the peerage nearly thirty years later.
His first appointment to office was in 1852, when he became chancellor of the exchequer under Lord Derby. The following year, however, the ministry was defeated. He remained out of office until 1858, when he again became chancellor of the exchequer, and brought in a reform bill which wrecked the government. During the time the Palmerston government was in office Benjamin Disraeli led the opposition in the lower house with conspicuous ability and courage. In 1866 the Liberals resigned, and Derby and Benjamin Disraeli came into power, the latter being again chancellor of the exchequer. They immediately brought in, and carried, after a violent and bitter struggle, a reform Bill on the basis of household suffrage.
In 1868 he became premier on the resignation of Lord Derby, but his tenure of office was short. In 1874 he again became prime-minister with a strong Conservative majority, and he remained in power for six years. This period was marked by his elevation to the peerage in 1876 as Earl of Beaconsfield, and by the prominent part he took in regard to the Eastern question and the conclusion of the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. In 1880 parliament was rather suddenly dissolved, and the new parliament showing an overwhelming Liberal majority, he resigned office, though he still retained the leadership of his party. Within a few months of his death the publication of a novel called Endymion (his last, Lothair, had been published ten years before) showed that his intellect was still vigorous. Among others of his writings besides those already mentioned are: A Vindication of the English Constitution, 1834; Alarcos; a Tragedy, 1839; and Lord George Bentinck, a Political Biography, 1852. Research Benjamin Disraeli
Edward Cardwell (ViscountCardwell) WAS AN English statesman. He was born in 1813 and died in 1886. He entered parliament in 1842, became a follower of Peel, and was secretary to the treasury in 1845-46. Under LordAberdeen he became president of the Board of Trade in 1853, and was the chief agent in carrying the great Merchant Shipping Act of 1854. In Palmerston's cabinet of 1859 he became secretary for Ireland, and under Palmerston and Russell he was colonial secretary in 1864-1866. As war secretary under Mr. Gladstone, in 1868-1874, he introduced great reforms in the army, including the short service and reserve system, and abolition of the purchase of commissions. He was created a peer in 1874, and henceforth took no great part in public affairs. Research Edward Cardwell
Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley (Fourteenth Earl Of Derby) was an English statesman. He was born in 1799 at Knowsley Park, Lancashire and died in 1869. In 1820 he was returned to the House of Commons as member for Stockbridge. At first inclining to the Whig party he joined Canning's ministry in 1827, and in 1830 became chief secretary for Ireland in Lord Grey's government, greatly distinguishing himself by his speeches in favour of the Reform Bill in 1831-1832. The opposition led by O'Connell in the House of Commons was powerful and violent, but Edward Stanley, while supporting a bill for the reform of the Irish Church and the reduction of ecclesiastical taxation, was successful in totally defeating the agitation for the repeal of the Union.
He warmly advocated the abolition of slavery, and passed the act for this purpose in 1833; but in the following year a difference of opinion with his party as to the diversion of the surplus revenue of the Irish Church led him to join the Tories.
In 1841 he became colonial secretary under Sir Robert Peel, but resigned on Robert Peel's motion for repeal of the corn-laws. In 1851 and 1858 he formed ministries which held office only for a short period; and again in 1866, when his administration signalized itself by the reform of the government in India, the conduct of the Abyssinian war, and the passing of a bill for electoral reform in 1867. Early in 1868, owing to failing health, he resigned office, recommending Benjamin Disraeli as his successor. Edward Stanley joined to great ability as a statesman, and brilliant oratorical powers, a high degree of scholarly culture and literary ability. Among other works he published a successful translation of Homer's Iliad in 1864. Research Edward Stanley
George Hamilton Gordon, earl of Aberdeen, was a British statesman. He was born in 1784 and died in 1860. He began his diplomatic life in 1801 as attache to LordCornwallis' embassy to France, which resulted in the signing of the treaty of Amiens. In 1806 he entered parliament as a Scottish representative peer, and in 1813 was intrusted with a successful mission to Austria for the purpose of inducing the emperor to join the coalition of sovereigns against Napoleon Bonaparte.
In 1814 he was created a British peer, and in 1828 he became foreign secretary under the Duke of Wellington's administration. During the short premiership of Sir Robert Peel in 1834-1835 he acted as colonial secretary, and when Sir Robert Peel again became premier in 1841 he took office as secretary for foreign affairs. Quitting office with his chief in 1846, he came, on the death of Peel in 1850, to be regarded as the leader of the Conservative free-trade party. On the Derby ministry failing to maintain its place LordAberdeen returned to office in the end of 1852 as head of a coalition ministry. The principal event which marked his administration was the Crimean war; but the bad management of this irritated the country, and the ministry resigned in 1855. This event marks the close of Lord Aberdeen's public career. From his travels and his acquaintance with Greece and its antiquities he was called by Lord Byron 'the travelled thane, Athenian Aberdeen.' Research George Gordon
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Catholic Emancipation
