A hostage is a person left as a pledge or surety for the performance of the articles or conditions of a treaty. Since the 19th century the taking or giving of hostages has been scarcely known in the relations of modern communities except in criminal activities, but was formerly almost universal, and many questions in the law of nations arose out of the practice. If the stipulated terms were observed the hostages were returned on each side, but if the terms were violated or evaded the hostages might be put to death. Research Hostage
An oath is a sworn statement, affirmation, or pledge, usually based upon religious principles and often used in legal matters. In a court of law, for example, all witnesses must swear that the testimony they give is the truth. Another example is the oath taken by public officials when they assume office. Members of the British parliament swear an oath of allegiance to the monarch - which Sinn Fein politicians elected in Northern Ireland have refused to do, thus causing them to be barred from sitting in the house. Aliens take an oath of allegiance when they become citizens of the USA. Taking an oath generally implies some legal or moral sanction for failing to carry out one' s sworn pledge; a trial witness, for instance, may be charged with perjury for lying under oath. The oath has its origins in religious customs, and some form of binding oath can be found in every culture.
Oaths are administered to those entering such institutions as the military, secret societies, religious orders, and marriage. Research Oath
John Doe and Richard Roe were sham names formerly used as standing pledges for the prosecution of suits, used to protect the true identities of those involved. In early times real and substantial persons were required to pledge themselves to answer to the crown for an amercement or fine set upon the plaintiff for raising a false accusation. As the matter became mere formality, the false names of John Doe or Richard Roe became popularly used until they were no longer needed when the Common Law Procedure Act of 1852 declared the form no longer necessary. Research John Doe
In Norse mythology, Tyr was the god of war and athletic sports. Tyr had one hand bitten off by the wolfFenris, after he put it in the wolf's mouth as a pledge of security when the wolf allowed himself to be bound in a net until the judgement day. Research Tyr
The Tippling Act of 1751 decreed that no debt under twenty shillings for spirituous liqueurs was recoverable unless it was contracted at one time. A person taking a pledge for such a debt was liable to a fine of 40 shillings, half to go to a common informer. An amendment to the act in 1862 made spirits sold in quantities of not less than one pint, to be drunk off the premises exempt. Research Tippling Act
The USS Pledge was an American Admirable Class minesweeper of 625 tons displacement launched in 1943. The USS Pledge was powered by diesel engines providing a top speed of 14.5 knots and carried a complement of 104. She was armed with one 3 inch dual-purpose gun and four 40 mm anti-aircraft guns. Research Pledge
Denmark is a kingdom in northern Europe, north of Germany. Denmark consists of a peninsular portion called Jutland, and an extensive archipelago lying east of it and comprising the islands of Seeland (or Sjalland), Funen (or Fyen), Laaland (or Lolland), Falster, Langeland, Moen, Samso, Laso, Arro, Bornholm, and many smaller ones. It has a total area of 43,070 km2.
For administrative purposes Denmark is divided into provinces or districts, besides the capital, nine of these making up Jutland, while the others embrace the islands.
On the south Denmark is bounded by Germany and the Baltic; on the west it is washed by the North Sea; northwards it is separated from Norway by the Skagerrack; eastward it is separated from Sweden by the Kattegat and the Sound.
Denmark, whether insular or mainland, is a very low-lying country, the eastern side of Jutland, whore tlic highest elevation occurs, not exceeding 550 feet. All the rocks belong to the upper series of the secondary and to the tertiary formation. The rock most fully developed is the chalk, above which is an extensive boulderformation containing Beams of lignite. Above this are thick beds of clay and marl. Where this prevails, as in Seeland and the east of Jutland, the soil is generally fertile; but where it is overlaid with deep beds of sand, as in the north and west of Jutland, the aspect is extremely desolate. Nearly the whole west coast, indeed, is rendered almost uninhabitable by the drift-sand which has formed an almost uninterrupted line of sterile downs called Klitten, extending from CapeSkagen (or The Skaw) to Blaavands Hook. A large portion of Jutland consists of heathy or moory land, comparatively unprofitable. Elsewhere it exhibits a fertile undulating surface. The islands, especially Seeland and Funen, are fertile and present many landscapebeauties. The country was once covered with great forests, but these have disappeared, and Denmark is largely dependent on other countries for her supplies of timber. Woods of some extent still exist, however, especially in the islands.
Denmark has numerous streams but no large rivers; the principal is the Guden, which flows northeast through Jutland into the Cattegat. The lakes are very numerous but not large, none exceeding 5.5 miles in length by about 1.5 miles broad. There are numerous winding inlets of the sea that penetrate far into the land. The largest of these, the Liimfiord in Jutland, entering from the Cattegat by a narrow channel, winds its way through to the North Sea, thus making northern Jutland really an island. In this fiord, which widens out greatly in the interior and gives off various minor fiords, there are one large and various small islands. Intercourse between the various islands and parts of the kingdom, separated from each other by water.
Owing to the lowness of the land and its proximity to the sea on all sides, the climate is remarkably temperate for so northerly a region, though the thermometer in winter may sink to 22 degrees below zero, and in summer rise to 89 degrees. Violent winds are frequent, and rains and fogs prevalent, but the climate is favourable to vegetation;
Natural resources are crude oil, natural gas, fish, salt and limestone. The religion is 97% Evangelical Lutheran, 2% other Protestant and Roman Catholic and 1% other religions. The official language is Danish with Faroese and Greenlandic (an Innuit dialect) also spoken and a small German-speaking minority also present.
The government of Denmark was originally an elective monarchy. In 1661 it became a hereditary and absolute monarchy, and in 1849 a hereditary constitutional one, the legislative power being in the king and diet jointly.
The oldest inhabitants of Denmark whom we find mentioned by name were the Cimbri, who dwelt in the peninsula of Jutland, the Chersonesus Cimbrica of the Romans. They first struck terror into the Romans by their incursion, with the Teutones, into the rich provinces of Gaul between 113 and 101 BC. After this, led by the mysterious Odin, the Goths broke into Scandinavia, and appointed chiefs from their own nation, over Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.
For a considerable time Denmark was divided into a number of small states, whose inhabitants lived mostly by piracy along the neighbouring coasts. In 787 they began to make their descents on the eastern coasts of England, and along with other inhabitants of Scandinavia they conquered Normandy in 876-7.
Under Gorm the Old all the small Danish states were united in 920, and his grandson Sweyn, now the head of a powerful kingdom, commenced the conquest of Norway and of England, which was ultimately completed by his son Canute. Canute died in 1035, leaving a powerful kingdom to his successors, who, in 1042, lost England, and in 1047 Norway. In 1047 Sweyn Magnus Estridsen ascended the throne, but with the exception of the great Waldemar the new dynasty furnished no worthy ruler, and the power of the kingdom decayed considerably until the accession of the politic Queen Margaret in 1387, who established the union of Oalmar in 1397, uniting under her rule Denmark, Sweden, and Norway.
In 1448 Christian I, count of Oldenburg, was elected to the throne, thus founding the royal family of Oldenburg, which kept possession of the throne until 1863. Under the rule of Christian, Norway, Sweden, Schleswig, and Holstein were connected with the crown of Denmark, but under his successor Christian IISweden established its independence. Under Frederick I (1523-1533) the Reformation was introduced. Christian IV of Denmark ascended the throne in 1588, took part in the Thirty Years' war, and engaged twice in a war with Sweden, with most unfortunate results.
Frederick III again engaging in war with Sweden in 1657 was equally unsuccessful. Christian V and Frederick IV were conquered in the war with Charles XII. Denmark, however, after the fall of Charles XII, gained by the Peace of 1720 the toll on the Sound, and maintained possession of Schleswig. After this Denmark enjoyed a long repose.
In 1800, having acceded to the northern confederacy, the kingdom was involved in a war with Great Britain, in which the Danish fleet was defeated at Copenhagen on April the 2nd, 1801. In 1807, there being reason to think that Denmark would join the alliance with France, a British fleet was sent up the Sound to demand a defensive alliance or the surrender of the Danish fleet as a pledge of neutrality. Both were denied, until the Danish capital was bombarded and forced to capitulate, the whole fleet being delivered up to the British. The war, however, was continued, Denmark forming new alliances with Napoleon until 1814, when a peace was concluded by which she ceded Heligoland to England in exchange for the Danish West India Islands, and Norway to Sweden in exchange for Swedish Pomerania and Rugen, which, however, she shortly after surrendered to Prussia, receiving in return Lauenburg and a pecuniary compensation. In June 1815 the king entered into the German confederacy as representing Holstein and Lauenburg. In 1848 Schleswig and Holstein revolted and were not finally subdued until 1852. In 1857 the Sound dues were abolished.
Frederick VII died in 1863 and with him the Oldenburg line became extinct. He was succeeded by Christian IX. (Prince of Sonderburg-Glucksburg). At the commencement of 1864 the Danish territory was politically distributed into four parts: Denmark Proper (consisting of the Danish islands and North Jutland), the duchy of Schleswig or South Jutland, with a population more than one-half Danish, the remainder Frisian and German; the duchy of Holstein, purely German; the duchy of Lauenburg, also German. The measures of the Danish government compelling the use of the Danish language in state schools having given great umbrage to the German population of the duchies, the disputes resulted in the intervention of the German confederation, and ultimately Holstein was occupied by the troops of Austria and Prussia in 1864. After a short campaign the Prussians captured Alsen, overran the greater part of Jutland, and forced the Danes to accept a peace on August the 1st, by which they renounced their right to the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg.
A difference now arose between Austria and Prussia as to what should be done with the duchies, and Prussia showing an evident intention of annexing them, the result was a war, which ended in the total defeat of Austria at Sadowa in 1866, the duchies thus passing over to Prussia.
Abbreviations
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