The Apollo Project was the US space project to land a person on the moon in order to prove to the world the ideological superiority of the American system over that of Communist Russia. It was reportedly achieved by Apollo 11 in July 1969. The three-stage vehicle to carry the astronauts to the moon was code named Saturn, and the contract to develop the Apollo three-man spacecraft was awarded to North American Aviation Incorporated in 1961 by NASA. The first launch into orbit of an Apollo command module was made by Saturn SA-6 on May the 28th 1964, and the first manned flight was made after a fire during ground tests killed the three astronauts - Virgil Grissom, Edward White and Roger Chaffee - on January the 27th 1967.
Controversy surrounds the supposed moon landing, with theories abounding that in 1969 it was technically impossible to land on the moon, and as a result NASA faked the moon landing, filming the 'landing' at the top secret military base, Area 51, in the Nevada desert while the astronauts actually orbited the earth for eight days before returning. This theory was later illustrated in the film 'Capricorn One' which told the fictional story of a faked landing on the planetMars. Research Apollo Project
An Atmospheric Railway is a railway so called in consequence of the motive power being derived from the pressure of the atmosphere, or from compressed air. The idea of thus obtaining motion was first suggested by the French engineer Papin, about 1700. In 1810, and again in 1827, a Mr. Medhurst published a scheme for 'propelling carriages through a close-fitting air-tight tunnel by forcing in air behind them' and in 1825 a similar project was patented by a Mr. Yallance of Brighton. About 1835 a Mr. H. Pinkus, an American residing in England, patented a pneumatic railway. The carriages were to travel on an open line of rails, along which a cast-iron tube of between 3 and 4 feet diameter was to be laid, having a longitudinal slit from 1 to 2 inches wide and closed by a flexible valve along its upper side, through which a connection could be formed between the leading carriage and a piston working within the tube. This method was improved by Messrs. Clegg and Samuda, who in 1840 tried some experiments on a portion of the West London Railway with sufficient success to induce the government to advance a loan to the Dublin and KingstownRailway Company, for the construction of a pneumatic line from Kingstown to Dalkey. It was opened for passenger traffic at the end of 1843, and was worked for many months. The London and Croydon Company subsequently obtained powers for laying down an atmospheric railway by the side of their other line from London to Croydon, and in experimental trips in 1845 a speed of 30 miles an hour was obtained with sixteen carriages, and of 70 miles an hour with six carriages. But during the intense heat of the summer of 1846 the iron tube frequently became so hot as to melt the composition which sealed the valve, and the line had to be worked by locomotives. The mechanical difficulty of commanding a sufficient amount of rarefaction led to the abandonment of the system for railway purposes. It was revived, however, for the conveyance of letters and
arcels in towns by means of tubes of moderate diameter laid beneath the streets, but not proceeded with. Within offices, however, atmospheric railways or rather pneumatic despatch systems are used notably within the supermarket chain Sainsburys where cash from tills is put into a cylindrical container which is closed and inserted into a pressurised pipe system for conveyance to the cash office. Research Atmospheric Railway
The Congress of Verona took place in 1822. It was a meeting of envoys of the great European powers to consult respecting the disturbances in Spain. Their project of interference for the sake of restoring Spanish power in the revolted colonies of South America was what led to the enunciation of the Monroe Doctrine of 1823. Research Congress of Verona
An edge-railway is a kind of way in which the wheels of the carriages run on the edge of iron rails. The wheels are confined to their path by flanges which project about an inch beyond their periphery. Research Edge-Railway
The Ocean Drilling Program (ODP), formerly known as the Deep-Sea DrillingProject until 1985 is a research project initiated in the USA in 1968, to sample the rocks of the ocean crust. Initially under the direction of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, the project was planned and administered by the Joint Oceanographic Institutions for Deep Earth Sampling (JOIDES). The operation became international in 1975, when Britain, France, West Germany, Japan, and the USSR also became involved. Boreholes were drilled in all the oceans using the JOIDES ships GlomarChallenger and Resolution. Knowledge of the nature and history of the ocean basins was increased dramatically. The technical difficulty of drilling the seabed to a depth of 2,000 m was overcome by keeping the ship in position with side- thrusting propellers and satellite navigation, and by guiding the drill using a radiolocation system. The project is intended to continue until 2005. Research Ocean Drilling Program
Camelidae is the camels, llamas, alpacas, vicugnas and guanacos family of animals of the order Artiodactyla. Camelids are all large, the South American forms ranging in weight from 35 kg to almost 100 kg. Old World camels, however, are much larger, weighing between 450 kg and 650 kg. Camelids vary in body shape from slender to stocky, but all have long, gracile necks; a small head; and long, slender legs. The upper lip is deeply and distinctively cleft. Their toes are splayed, and Camelids are the only plantigrade or fully digitigrade ungulates. The skulls of Camelids have an elongated rostrum, a well developed sagittal crest, and a complete postorbital bar. They lack horns or antlers. The cheek teeth are selenodont. Upper incisors are present; young have three on each side, but adults have only one, which is canine-like. The spatulate lower incisorsproject forward. The canines, which are present in both upper and lower jaws, are medium- sized and hooked. A wide diastema separates incisors and cheek teeth. Research Camelidae
The cheese-fly (Piophila casei) is a small black fly, akin to the house-fly, blow-fly, etc. It lays its eggs in the cracks of cheese. The maggot, knowns as the cheese-hopper, is furnished with two horny claw-shaped mandibles, which it uses both for digging into the cheese and for moving itself, having no feet. Its leaps are performed by a jerk, first bringing itself into a circular attitude, when it can project itself twenty to thirty times its own length. Research Cheese-Fly
The creeper is the Certhiadae family of birds which resemble the woodpecker in their habit of creeping up tree trunks with the aid of the strong quills which project from the tail-feathers, and of securing their insect food by an exsertile tongue. The common creeper (Certhia familiaris) is European, but is represented by American species. It is a pretty and interesting little bird, which builds its nest usually in holes crcrevices of trees. The wall-creeper (Tichodroma muraria} of Southern Europe searches for its insect food on rocks. The family is found in all parts of the world. Research Creeper
Crocodilia (the crocodiles and alligators) is an order of Diapsida. They are large reptiles adapted to life in rivers and lakes. The head is held horizontally in front of the body, four legs project from the sides, they have heavy scales which function as armour, and a heavy muscular tail. The front feet have five separate toes and the rear feet have four partially- webbed toes. The eyes are on the top of their head, close together to allow for binocular vision. The nostrils are crescent-shaped and valvular, and set at the end of the snout, which allows breathing even when the animal is almost entirely submerged. The tail is flattened from side to side and is a powerful swimming tool. Research Crocodilia
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Apollo Project
