Benedict IX was a pope. He was born in 1021 and died in 1054. He succeeded John XIX. in 1033, being placed on the papal throne as a boy of twelve years. His licentiousness caused him to be ignominiously expelled by the citizens, who elected Sylvester III. Six months after he regained the ascendency, and excommunicated Sylvester III; but finding the general detestation too strong to permit him to resume his chair, sold it to John Gratianus, who assumed the title of Gregory VI. There was thus a trio of popes, and the emperor, Henry III, to put an end to the scandal, deposed all the three. Research Benedict IX
Charles Sumner was an American statesman and anti-slavery campaigner. He was born in 1811 at Boston and died in 1874. Educated at Harvard, he was called to the Bar in 1834 and elected to the Senate in 1851. On returning from an extended Buropean tour, from 1837 to 1840, he became profoundly interested in the anti-slavery question, and devoted the next few years of his life to the abolition of slavery and was an impressive speaker on the subject.
In 1846, Charles Sumner, who had been a moderate Whig, helped organize the Free-Soil party in 1848, and was defeated for Congress the same year. In 1851, after a prolonged struggle of three months in the Massachusetts Legislature, he was elected US Senator by a coalition of Democrats and Free-Soilers. He speedily became the chief advocate in the Senate of the anti-slavery sentiment. His speech, 'Freedom National, Slavery Sectional', gave the signal of his course. That on the 'Crime against Kansas', in May, 1856, provoked a personal assault from a Southern Representative, Preston Brooks. Sumner was severely injured, and did not resume his seat until 1859.
He was meanwhile re-elected Senator as a Republican, and re-elected twice, serving until his death. In 1861 he became chairman of the Committee of Foreign Affairs and was one of the chief friends and advisers of President Abraham Lincoln. He opposed Johnson, but supported the Alaska purchase. In 1871 he strongly opposed the San Domingo Treaty, broke with President Grant and the Republican Senators, and was removed from his chairmanship. He supported Horace Greeley in 1872, and gave his closing efforts to the furtherance of the civil rights of coloured citizens. Research Charles Sumner
Che Guevara (real name Ernesto Guevara) was an Argentinean revolutionary. He was born in 1928 and died in 1967. A qualified doctor, he left Argentina in 1953 because of his opposition to the dictator Peron. He became a communist after seeing the poverty in many South American countries and fought under Fidel Castro in the Cuban Revolution of 1956 to 1959. Although he became a government minister in Cuba, he later disappeared to resume his guerrilla activities. He was eventually captured and shot by the army in Bolivia while training a guerrilla group there. His dedication and death made him a hero among young Western revolutionaries in the late 1960s and 1970s. Research Che Guevara
Christina was Queen of Sweden. She was born in 1626 and died in 1689. The daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, after the death of Gustavus, at Lutzen, in 1632, the states-general appointed guardians to the Queen Christina, then but six years old. Her education was continued according to the plan of Gustavus Adolphus. She learned the ancient languages, history, geography, politics, and renounced the pleasures of her age in order to devote herself entirely to study.
In 1644 she took upon herself the government. A great talent for business, and great firmness of purpose, distinguished her first steps. She terminated the war with Denmark begun in 1644, and obtained several provinces by the treaty concluded at Bromsebro in 1645. Her subjects wished that she should choose a husband, but she manifested a constant aversion to marriage. During this time her patronage of learned men, artists, and the like, was lavish.
In 1650 she caused herself to be crowned with great pomp, and with the title of king. From that time a striking change in her conduct was perceptible. She neglected her ancient ministers, and listened to the advice of ambitious favourites. Intrigues and base passions succeeded to her former noble and useful views. The public treasure was squandered with extravagant profusion. In 1654 she abdicated in favour of her cousin Charles Gustavus, reserving to herself a certain income, entire independence, and full power over her suite and household. A few days after she left Sweden and went to Brussels, where she made a public entry and remained for some time. There she made a secret profession of the Catholic religion, which she afterwards publicly confirmed in Innsbruck. From Innsbruck she went to Rome, which she entered on horseback in the costume of an Amazon, with great pomp. When the Pope Alexander VII confirmed her she adopted the surname of Alessandra. For some time she resided at Paris, and incurred great odium by the execution of her Italian groom Monaldeschi for betrayal of confidence. Subsequent attempts which she made to resume the crown of Sweden failed, and she spent the rest of her life in artistic and other studies at Rome. She left an immense art collection and a large number of valuable manuscripts. Her writings were collected and published in 1752. Research Christina
Feodor Michailovitch Dostoieffsky was a Russian novelist. He was born in 1818 and died in 1881. After serving as an officer of engineers he devoted himself to literature, but becoming connected with communistic schemes he was banished to the mines of Siberia, from which he returned in 1856 to resume his literary activity. His first novel, Poor People, came out in 1846. Among his works that have appeared in English are Crime and Punishment; Injury and Insult; The Friend of the Family; The Gambler; The Idiot; Prison Life in Siberia. Research Feodor Dostoieffsky
Manuel Godoy, Duke of Alcudia, better known as the Prince of the Peace, was a Spanish soldier and politician. He was born in 1767 at Badajoz and died in 1851. He entered the royal body-guards in 1787. His personal qualities soon made him a favourite at the Spanish court, and his promotion was rapid. In 1791 he became adjutant-general of the guards, in 1792 lieutenant-general, Marquis of Alcudia, grandee of Spain of the first class, and prime-minister; and in 1795, as a reward for the part he had taken in concluding peace with France, he was presented with a large and valuable landed estate, and made a knight of the Golden Fleece. It was on this occasion also that he was named by the king Prince of Peace. As he used his vast power in the promotion of French more than Spanish interests, he became extremely unpopular, and the hatred of the people became so great in 1808 that he had to take refuge in France. Having lost everything, he lived for a long time only on the bounty of his royal friends. In 1847 he was permitted to return to Spain and resume his titles. The larger portion of his domains, however, was irrecoverably lost, and he ended his days in obscurity and poverty. Research Manuel Godoy
Simone Arturo St Bon was an Italian admiral. He was born in 1823 at Chambery and died in 1892. He modernised the Italian navy, advocating the use of large battleships. Under Minghetti he was minister of marine, resigning in 1876 to resume active service, but returning to office in 1891. He served during the Crimean War at Ancona in 1860 and at the siege of Gaeta, and in the naval battle off Lissa in 1866. Research Simone St Bon
A balance is an instrument employed for determining the quantity of any substance equal to a given weight. Balances are of various forms; in that most commonly used a horizontal beam rests so as to turn easily upon a certain point known as the centre of motion. From the extremities of the beam, called the centres of suspension, hang the scales; and a slender metal tongue midway between them, and directly over the centre of motion, indicates when the beam is level. The characteristics of a good balance are: 1st, that the beam should rest in a horizontal position when the scales are either empty or loaded with equal weights; 2nd, that a very small addition of weight put into either scale should cause the beam to deviate from the level, which property is denominated the sensibility of the balance; 3rd, that when the beam is deflected from the horizontal position by inequality of the weights in the scales, it should have a tendency speedily to restore itself and come to rest in the level, which property is called the stability of the balance.
To secure these qualities the arms of the beam should be exactly similar, equal in weight and length, and as long as possible; the centres of gravity and suspension should be in one straight line, and the centre of motion immediately above the centre of gravity; and the centre of motion and the centres of suspension should cause as little friction as possible. The centre of motion ought to be a knife-edge; and if the balance requires to be very delicate, the centres of suspension ought to be knife-edges also. If the balance have no tendency to one position more than another, when the scales are either loaded, empty, or off altogether, it is a proof that the centres of gravity and motion coincide, and the remedy is to lower the centre of gravity. If the beam is disturbed by a small addition of weight to either scale, and exhibits no tendency to resume the horizontal position, we may infer that the centre of gravity is above the centre of motion.
If it require a considerable excess of weight to deflect the beam from the level, we may infer either that there is too much friction at the centre of motion, or that the centre of gravity is too low. If two weights are found to be in equipoise, one being in each scale, and if, when that which is in the one scale is put into the other, there is no longer equilibrium, then we may infer that the arms of the beam are of unequal lengths. Eor purposes of accuracy, balances have occasionally means of raising or depressing the centre of gravity, of regulating the length of the arms, etc, and the whole apparatus is not unfrequently enclosed in a glass case, to prevent the heat from expanding the arms unequally, or currents of air from disturbing the equilibrium.
Of the other forms of balance, the Roman balance, or steelyard, consists of a lever moving freely upon a suspended fulcrum, the shorter arm of the lever having a scale or pan attached to it, and the longer arm, along which slides a weight, being graduated to indicate quantities. It was commonly used for weighing loaded carts, for luggage at railway-stations, etc. A variety of this, the Danish balance, has the weight fixed at the end of the lever, the fulcrum being movable along the graduated index. The spring-balance shows the weight of articles by the extent to which they draw out or compress a spiral spring. It is of service where a high degree of exactness is not required, and finds application in the dynamometer for measuring the force of machinery. Research Balance
Elasticity is the property in virtue of which bodies resist change of volume and change of shape, and recover their former figure or state after external pressure, tension, or distortion. The former is called elasticity of volume, the latter elasticity of shape. The name Compressibility is also used in connection with the elasticity of volume; and Rigidity, or resistance to change of shape, in connection with the latter. Fluids possess no rigidity whatever;. they offer no permanent resistance to change of shape; while a solid body, unless it is distorted beyond certain limits, called the limits of elasticity, tends to return to its original form. Both fluids and solids possess elasticity of volume, and tend to resume their original volume after compression. The elasticity of volume of the former is perfect; whatever compression they have been subjected to, they return under the same conditions of temperature to precisely their original volumes when the forces of compression are removed. In the case of solids there are limits to their elasticity of volume as well as to their elasticity of form; thus gold may be made permanently denser by hammering. There is one law of elasticity, the celebrated law of Hooke - Ut Tensio sicVis, which translated into the modern language of elasticity states - Strain is proportional to stress; or, in other words, whatever be the nature of the distortion the amount of it is proportional to the stress that produces it. This law is only considered as applicable so long as we do not go beyond the limits of elasticity. Also of relevance to elasticity is Boyle's Law, which deals with gasses. Research Elasticity
Web Whacker is an offline browser for the IBMPC. It puts the Web pages directly on your hard drive so you can view them when you want. WebWhacker 2000 has features such as automatic scheduler, pause and resume, monitor websites for changes, filtering, import bookmarks, link checker and much more. Research WebWhacker
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Benedict IX
