An anthelion is a luminous ring, or rings, seen by an observer, especially in alpine and polar regions, around the shadow of his head projected on a cloud or fog-bank, or on grass covered with dew, fifteen or twenty metres distant, and opposite the sun
when rising or setting. It is due to the diffraction of light. Research Anthelion
A cromlech is an ancient erection consisting of two or more stones standing like pillars, with a large flat or slightly inclined stone placed on top appearing somewhat like a table so as to form a rectangular chamber, beneath the floor of which is sometimes found a cist inclosing a skeleton and relics. Sometimes the cromlech was encircled by a ring of standing-stones, as in the case of the Standing-stones of Stennis, in Orkney; and sometimes it was itself buried beneath a large mound of earth. Research Cromlech
Dredging is a term applied to the operation of removing mud, silt, and other deposits from the bottom of harbours, canals, rivers, docks, etc. The most simple dredging apparatus is the spoon apparatus, which consists of a strong iron ring or hoop, properly formed for making an impression upon the soft matter at the bottom, so as to scoop it into a large bag attached to the ring and perforated with a number of small holes. The means for working it is a long handle, a suspending rope, and a crane or sweep-pole planted in a boat.
Much more effective was the steam dredging-machine that became common during the 19th century. It had a succession of strong iron buckets on an endless chain, which traversed on a frame whose lower end was vertically adjustable so as to regulate the depth at which it worked. It was worked by steam, and the buckets tore up the matter at the bottom, raised it, and discharge it into punts or hoppers close to the dredging vessel. Various forms of steam - pump dredgers, in which suction-pipes were the chief features, were also used.
The river Clyde, from being a shallow stream, was converted, mainly by dredging, into a waterway carrying large vessels up to Glasgow.
Dredging rivers for gold has been largely carried on since the 19th century; and the gold-dredge may even be floated in water artificially supplied.
Dredging is also the operation of dragging the bottom of the sea for molluscs, plants, and other objects, it may be for scientific observation. The oyster-dredge is a light iron frame with a scraper like a narrow hoe on one side, and a bag attached to receive the oysters. The dredges used by naturalists are mostly modifications of or somewhat similar to the oyster-dredge. Scientific dredging assumed a high importance at the end of the 19th century for research into the life of deep-sea areas, before the invention of deep-sea diving equipment and cameras. Research Dredging
An eclipse is the interception or obscuration of the light of the sun, moon or other heavenly body by the intervention of another and non-luminous heavenly body. Stars and planets may suffer eclipse, but the principal eclipses are those of the sun and the moon.
An Eclipse of the Moon is an obscuration of the light of the moon occasioned by an interposition of the earth between the sun and the moon; consequently, all eclipses of the moon happen at full moon; for it is only when the moon is on that side of the earth which is turned away from the sun, and directly opposite, that it can come within the earth's shadow. Further, the moon must at that time be in the same plane as the earth's shadow; that is, the plane of the ecliptic in which the latter always moves. But as the moon's orbit makes an angle of more than 5 degrees with the plane of the ecliptic, it frequently happens that though the moon is in opposition it does not come within the shadow of the earth.
An Eclipse of the Sun is an occultation of the whole or part of the face of the sun occasioned by an interposition of the moon between the earth and the sun; thus all eclipses of the sun happen at the time of new moon. As the earth is not always at the same distance from the moon, and as the moon is a comparatively small body, if an eclipse should happen when the earth is so far from the moon that the moon's shadow falls short of the earth, a spectator situated on the earth in a direct line between the centres of the sun and moon, would see a ring of light round the dark body of the moon; such an eclipse is called annular; when this happens there can be no total eclipse anywhere, because the moon's umbra does not reach the earth. An eclipse can never be annular longer than 12 minutes 24 seconds, nor total longer than 7 minutes 58 seconds; nor can the entire duration of an eclipse of the sun ever exceed 2 hours.
An eclipse of the sun begins on the western side of his disc and ends on the eastern; and an eclipse of the moon begins on the eastern side of her disc and ends on the western. The average number of eclipses in a year is four, two of the sun and two of the moon; and as the sun and moon are as long below the horizon of any particular place as they are above it, the average number of visible eclipses in a year is two, one of the sun and one of the moon. Research Eclipse
A globe is a sphere, a round solid body, which may be conceived to be generated by the revolution of a semicircle about its diameter. An artificial globe, in geography and astronomy, is a globe of metal, plaster, paper, pasteboard, plastic etc, on the surface of which is drawn a map, or representation of either the earth or the heavens, with the several circles which are conceived upon them, the former being called the terrestrial globe, and the latter the celestial globe. In the terrestrial globe the wire on which it turns represents the earth's axis, the extremities of it representing the poles. The brazenmeridian is a vertical circle in which the
artificial globe turns, divided into 360 degrees, each degree being divided into minutes and seconds. The brassmeridian receives the ends of the axis on which the globe revolves. At right angles to this, and consequently horizontal, is a broad ring of wood or brass representing the horizon; that is, the true horizon of the earth which lies in a plane containing the earth's centre. The horizon and brassmeridian are connected with the stand on which the whole is supported. On the surface of the globe, as on other maps, are marked parallels of latitude, meridians, etc. On a globe of some size the meridians are drawn through every 15" of the equator, each answering to an hour's difference of time between two places. Hence they are called the hour circles. A number of problems or questions, many of them more curious than useful, may be solved by means of a terrestrial globe. Among the most important are such as to find the latitude and longitude of a place, the difference of time between two places, the time of the sun's rising and setting for a given day at a given place, etc.
Jougs or juggs were jointed collars of iron, by which misdemeanants were held captive in Scotland. The culprit's neck being encircled by the jougs, the two free ends of the iron band were slipped over each other and secured by a padlock. On the opposite side was a movable iron ring fastened into the collar by a small fixed ring, and by this ring the jougs were attached to a stone projecting from a conspicuous part of the churchyard wall. Research Jougs
The knout was a Russian instrument of punishment. It consisted of a handle about 60 cm long, to which was fastened a flat leatherthong about twice the length of the handle, terminating with a large copper or brass ring; to this ring was affixed a strip of hide about five centimetres broad at the ring, and terminating at the end of 60 cm in a point. This was soaked in milk and dried in the sun to make it harder, and should it fall, in striking, the culprit on the edge, it would cut like a penknife. The culprit was bound erect to two stakes to receive the specified number of lashes on the back, and the tail of the knout was changed at every sixth stroke. Punishment by the knout often resulted in the death of the victim. It was abolished by Tsar Nicholas I. Research Knout
Neptune is the eighth planet from the sun. It has eight satellites, the largest being Triton and Nereid, and a faint planar system of rings or ring fragments. It has a mean distance from the sun of 4497 million km and takes 164.8 years to orbit the sun and 14 hours to rotate. Research Neptune
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Anthelion
