The Aetolian League was a confederacy of independent tribes of Aetolia in central Greece. It was formed in the 4th century BC and expanded in the 3rd century BC to include Thrace, Epirus, Peloponnesus and Asia Minor. By 220 BC it controlled most of central Greece and was the main rival to Macedonia. The League resisted attacks from Philip V of Macedonia, but was defeated by an alliance of Antiochus of Syria and the Romans in 189 BC. The League was dissolved in 167 BC. Research Aetolian League
Albion Market was an English television soap-opera created as a rival to the BBC's 'Eastenders' and similarly set in the East End of London and following the lives of a fictional community. Albion Market was first aired in 1985 but after 100 episodes and negligible viewers was scrapped. Research Albion Market
The Arkansas Gazette was the first newspaper published in Arkansas. The first edition, with less than 100 copies printed, was issued at the then territorial capital of Arkansas Post on November 20 1819 by William E Woodruff. The Arkansas Gazette ceased publication in 1991, when it was sold to the rival Democrat-Gazette newspaper and became the 'Arkansas Democrat-Gazette'. Research Arkansas Gazette
Blind Men was a British situation comedytelevision show created by Chris England and Neil Hancock about two rival window-blind salesmen. Blind Men starred Jeremy Swift and Jesse Birdsall, and ran from 1997 to 1998. Research Blind Men
A colony is a settlement formed in one country by the inhabitants of another. Colonies may either be formed in dependence on the mother country or in independence. In the latter case the name of colony is retained only in a historical sense. Properly, perhaps, the term should be limited to a settlement which carries on a direct cultivation of the soil, as in the former British colonies of Canada and Australia in contrast to the former in Hindustan or Malta which were the mere superposition on the natives of a ruling race which took little or no part in the general industry of the country.
The motives which lead to the formation of colonies, and the manner of their formation, are various. Sometimes the ambition of extending territory and the desire of increasing wealth have been the chief impulses in colonization; but colonies became a necessity for the redundant population of European states in the 19th century.
Among ancient nations the principal promoters of colonization were the Phoenicians, the Greeks, and the Romans; the greatest colonizers in modern times have been the English and the Spaniards, next to whom may be reckoned the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the French. The Germans during the 19th century contributed largely to the tide of emigration, particularly in the direction of America;
but did little directly as colonizers.
The Phoenician colonies were partly caused by political dissensions and redundant population, but were chiefly commercial, serving as entrepots and ports of repair for Phoenician commerce along the coasts of Africa and Spain, in the latter of which they numbered, according to Strabo, more than two hundred. But it was in Africa that the most famous arose, Carthage, the greatest colonizing state of the ancient world.
The Greek colonies, which were widely spread in Asia Minor and the islands of the Mediterranean, the coasts of Macedonia and Thrace, in South Italy and Sicily, were commonly independent, and frequently soon surpassed the mother states in power and importance.
The colonies of Rome were chiefly military, and while the empire lasted were all in strict subordination to the central government. As the Roman power declined the remains of them amalgamated with the peoples among whom they were placed, thus forming in countries where they were sufficiently strong what are known as the Latin races, with languages (Spanish, Portuguese, French, and Italian) which are merely modifications of the old Roman tongue.
Before America and the way by sea to the East Indies were discovered, the only colonies belonging to European states were those of the Genoese, Pisans, and Venetians in the Levant and the Black Sea, flourishing establishments on which the mercantile greatness of Italy in those days was largely built.
The Portuguese were the first great colonizers among modern states. In 1419 they discovered Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verde Islands; the Congo and the Cape of Good Hope followed; and before the century was out Vasco de Gama had landed at Calicut on the Malabar coast of India. The first Portuguese colonies were garrisons along the coasts where they traded: Mozambique and Sofala on the east coast of Africa, Ormuz and Muscat in the Persian Gulf, Goa and Damao on the west coast of India. Colonies were established in Sri Lanka in 1505, in the Moluccas in 1510. Brazil was discovered in 1499, and this magnificent possession fell to Portugal, and was colonized about 1530. Bad government at home and the subjection of the country to Spain caused the loss of most of the Portuguese colonies.
Soon after the Portuguese the Spaniards commenced the work of colonization. In 1492 Columbus, on board of a Spanish vessel, discovered the island of San Salvador. Haiti, or San Domingo, Porto Rico, Jamaica, and Cuba were soon colonized, and before the middle of the 16th century Mexico, Ecuador, Venezuela, New Granada (Colombia), Peru, and Chili were subdued, and Spain took the first rank amongst the colonizing powers of Europe. But the Spaniards never really attempted to develop the industrial resources of the subject countries. The pursuit of mining for gold or silver occupied the colonists almost exclusively, and the enslaved natives were driven to work themselves to death in the mines. Cities were founded, at first along the coasts, for the sake of commerce and as military posts; afterwards also in the interior, in particular in the vicinity of the mines, as Vera Cruz, Cumana, Porto Bello, Carthagena, Valencia, Caracas; Acapuico and Panama, on the coast of the Pacific; Lima, Goncepcion, and Buenos Aires. The colonial intercourse with Spain was confined to the single port of Seville, afterwards to that of Cadiz, from which two squadrons started annually - the galleons, about twelve in number, for Porto Bello; and the fleet, of fifteen large vessels, for Vera Cruz. When the power of Spain declined, the colonies declared their independence, and thus were formed the republics of Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, etc. Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands passed to the United States in 1898; the Caroline Islands, etc, were sold to Germany in 1899; and by 1900 hardly any colony remained to Spain.
The hate of Philip II, who prohibited Dutch vessels from the port of Lisbon, forced the Dutch to import directly from India or lose the large carrying trade they had acquired. Several companies were soon formed, and in 1602 they were united into one, the Dutch East India Company, with a monopoly of the East Indiatrade and sovereign powers over all conquests and colonies in India. The Dutch now rapidly deprived the Portuguese of nearly all their East Indian territories, settled a colony at the Cape of Good Hope in 1650, established a West India Company, made extensive conquests in Brazil between 1623 and 1660, which were soon lost, and more permanent ones on some of-the smaller West India Islands, as San Eustatia, Curacoa, Saba, etc. The growing power of the British and the loss of Holland's independence during the Napoleonic wars were heavy blows to the colonial power of the nation. But the Dutch still possesed numerous colonies in the East Indies at the start of the 20th century, among which the more important were Java, Sumatra, Dutch Borneo, the Molucca Islands, and part of New Guinea, also several small islands in the West Indies, and Surinam.
No colonizing power of Europe had a career of such uniform prosperity as Great Britain. The English attempts at colonization began nearly at the same time with the Dutch. After many fruitless attempts to find a north-east or north-west passage to the East Indies, English vessels found their way round the Cape of Good Hope to the East Indies in 1591. The East India Company was established in 1600. English commerce with India, however, was not at first important, and they possessed only single factories on the continent up until the beginning of the 18th century. The ruin of the Mogul Empire in India after the death of Aurengzebe in 1707 afforded the opportunity for the growth of British power, as the British and French were compelled to interfere in the contentions of the native princes and governors. The French appeared at first to maintain the superiority; but the British in turn got the upper hand, and the victory of Clive at Plassey in 1756 laid the foundation of an exclusive British sovereignty in India. By the middle of the next century the British territory embraced, with the exception of a few dependent states, nearly the whole of India, and this vast territory was still under the government of the East India Company - a mercantile company, controlled indeed by parliament, but exercising many of the most important functions of an independent sovereignty. On the suppression of the Indian mutiny in 1857-1858 the government of India was transferred to the crown by act of parliament in 1858.
The discoveries of the Cabots, following soon after the voyages of Columbus, gave the English crown a claim to North America, which, though allowed to lie dormant for nearly a century, was never relinquished, and which, in the reign of Elizabeth I, led to colonization on a large scale. Walter Raleigh's settlement on Roanoke Island (North Carolina) in 1585 failed to become permanent, but in 1607 the colonists sent out by the London Company to Chesapeake Bay founded Jamestown, on the James River, in Virginia. The next great settlement was that of the Pilgrim Fathers, who landed on the 21st of December 1620, in Massachusetts Bay. The colonization of New Hampshire, Maine, New Jersey, Connecticut and Rhode Island, soon followed. In the State of New York and the Hudson River Territory the British found the Dutch already in possession; but in 1664 they seized the colony of New Amsterdam by force, changing its name to New York in honour of James, Duke of York. Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn, and colonized with Quakers in 1682; Maryland in 1631 by a party from Virginia; Carolina in 1670 and Georgia in 1732 by colonies from England.
Colonies were early established in the West India Islands, including Barbados, half of St. Christopher's in 1625, and soon after many smaller islands. Newfoundland was taken possession of in 1583, colonized in 1621 and 1633. Canada was surrendered to Britain at the Peace of Paris in 1763. In 1764 began the disputes between Britain and its North American colonies, which terminated with the acknowledgment of the independence of the United States, Canada remaining a British dependency.
Australia was discovered in the beginning of the 17th century. The first Australasian settlements of Britain were penal colonies. New South Wales, discovered in 1770, was established as a penal colony in 1788; Tasmania (Van Diemen's Land), discovered by Tasman in 1642, followed in 1803; West Australia, also first used as a penal settlement, became a free colony in 1829; Victoria was colonized in 1835, and made an independent colony in 1851; South Australia was settled in 1836. In 1851 the discovery of gold in Victoria gave a great impetus to the Australian Colonies. Queensland was made a separate colony from N.ew South Wales in 1859. New Zealand, discovered by Tasman in 1642, began to be used for whale-fishery about 1790, was settled in 1839, and made a colony in 1840. In 1874 the Fiji Islands, and in 1884 part of New Guinea, were annexed as crown colonies. In South AfricaCape Colony, first settled by the Dutch in 1652, finally became a British colony in 1815. Natal followed in 1843. Later annexations were Bechuanaland in 1885, Zululand in 1887, Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) in 1888-89, and the Orange River Colony and Transvaal in 1900. In Western Africa were the colonies of the Gold Coast, Gambia, and SierraLeone - ancient possessions of the British crown; with Lagos and Nigeria acquired in 1885 and after. Other possessions were British East Africa (Kenya), with Uganda and Somaliland. Gibraltar was acquired in 1704, Malta in 1800.
According to their government relations with the crown the colonies were arranged under three heads: (1.) Crown colonies, in which the crown had the entire control of legislation, while the administration was carried on by public officers under the control of the home government. (2.) Colonies possessing representative institutions but not responsible government, in which the crown had no more than a veto on legislation, but the home government retained the control of public officers. (3.) Colonies possessing representative institutions and responsible government, in which the crown had only a veto on legislation, and the home government had no control over any officer except the governor. All colonies were, however, disabled from such acts of independent sovereignty as the initiative in war, alliances, and diplomacy generally.
France was somewhat late in establishing colonies. Between 1627 and 1636 the West Indian islands of St Christopher's, Guadeloupe, and Martinique were colonized by private persons. Champlain was the pioneer of the French in the exploration of the North American continent, and founded Quebec in 1608. Colbert purchased several West India islands, as Martinique, Guadeloupe, St Lucia, etc, and sent out colonists in 1664 to Cayenne. In 1670 the East India Company formed by Colbert founded Pondicherry, which became the capital of extensive possessions in the East Indies. At the beginning of the 18th century France had extensive settlements in Canada, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, the most flourishing of the West India islands, and she seemed to have a prosperous career before her in India. Ere long, however, the rival interests of British and French colonists brought about a conflict which terminated in the loss of Canada and other North American possessions, as well as many of the West India Islands, while the dominion of India passed into the hands of the British.
During the 19th century Germany made an effort to take rank as a colonial power, and acquired in Africa the territories of Damaraland, Great Nama Land, etc, on the south-west coast, north of Cape Colony; the Cameroons District; a large portion of territory formerly claimed by the Sultan of Zanzibar, extending inland to Victoria Nyanza, etc; also in the Pacific a portion of New Guinea, then subsequently called Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, the BismarckArchipelago, Marshall Islands, etc.
The Council of Constance was a general council of the Church of Rome, held between 1414 and 1418. The German emperor, the pope, 33 cardinals, 3 patriarchs, 47 archbishops, 145 bishops, 124 abbots, 750 doctors, and about 18,000 priests and monks, besides many princes and counts, were present at this assembly, which condemned to deathHuss and Jerome of Prague, expelled the rival popes John XXIII, Gregory XII, and Benedict XIII, and elected Martin V to the papal chair. Research Council of Constance
Glaciers are icy masses of great bulk, harder than snow, yet not exactly like common ice, which cover the summits and sides of mountains above the snow-line. They are found in Switzerland, Scandinavia, the Andes, etc.
They extend down into the valleys often far below the snow-line, and bear a considerable resemblance to a frozen torrent. They take their origin in the higher valleys, where they are formed by the congelation and compression of masses of snow in that condition called by French writers neve, by German authors, firn.
The ice of glaciers differs from that produced by the freezing of still water, and is composed of thin layers filled with air-bubbles. It is likewise more brittle and less transparent. The glaciers are continually moving downwards, and not unfrequently reach the borders of cultivation. The rate at which a glacier moves generally varies from 45 to 60 cm in twenty-four hours.
At its lower end it is generally very steep and inaccessible. In its middle course it resembles a frozen stream
with an undulating surface, broken up by fissures or crevasses. As it descends it experiences a gradualdiminution from the action of the sun and rain, and from the heat of the earth. Hence a phenomenon universally attendant on glaciers - the issue of a stream of ice-cold turbid water from their lower extremity. The descent of glaciers is shown by changes in the position of masses of rock at their sides and on their surface. A remarkable glacier phenomenon is that of moraines, as they are called, consisting of accumulations of stones and detritus piled up on the sides of the glacier, or scattered along the surface. They are composed of fragments of rock detached by the action of frost and other causes.
The fissures or crevasses by which glaciers are traversed are sometimes more than 30 meters in depth, and from being often covered with snow are exceedingly dangerous to travellers. One of the most famous glaciers of the Alps is the Mer de Glace, belonging to Mont Blanc, in the valley of Chamouni, about 1740 meters above sea level. It is more especially, however, in the chain of Monte Rosa that the phenomena of glaciers are exhibited in their greatest sublimity, as also in their most interesting phases from a scientific point of view.
Glaciers exist in all zones in which mountains rise above the snow-line. Those of Norway are well known, and they abound in Iceland and Spitzbergen. Hooker and other travellers gave accounts of those of the Himalaya. They are conspicuous on the Andes, while the Southern Alps of New Zealandrival in this respect the Alpine regions of Switzerland.
The problem of the descent of the glaciers is of extraordinary interest, and various theories have been put forward to account for it. It was shown by Professor Forbes, of Edinburgh, that a glacier moves very much like a river; the middle and upper parts faster than the sides and the bottom; and he showed that glacier motion was analogous to the way in which a mass of thick mortar or a quantity of pitch flows down in an inclined trough. His theory is known as the viscous theory of glaciers, which presupposes that ice is a plastic body, and this plasticity has been satisfactorily explained by Professor James Thomson of Glasgow by the phenomenon of the melting and refreezing of ice.
Water, he discovered, when subjected to pressure, freezes at a lower temperature than when the pressure is removed. Consequently when ice is subjected to pressure it melts; if it is relieved of pressure the water again solidifies. Therefore if two pieces of ice are pressed together, they tend to relieve themselves by melting at their points of contact, and the water thus produced immediately solidifies on its escape. If ice is strained in any way it similarly relieves itself at the strained parts, and a similar regelation follows. This, when applied to the glaciers, gives a complete explanation of their plasticity. Pressed downwards by the vast superincumbent mass, the ice gradually yields. Melting and re-freezing takes place at some parts, at others the gradual yielding at strained points goes on. In the latter process there is no visible melting, but there is the gradual yielding from point to point to the pressure above, and there is the transference relatively to each other of the molecules that constitute the, at first sight, solid mass. If, however, at certain points the strain is intense, the ice becomes extremely brittle. The latter fact disposes of Tyndall's objection to Forbes' theory, which was based on the fact that crevasses proved the brittleness, and not the viscosity of ice. Research Glacier
The Hudson Bay Company was chartered by Charles II on May the 16th, 1670, for the discovery of a new passage to the South Sea, and for the finding of some trade for furs, minerals and other considerable commodities. Adopting the suggestion of Sir Alexander Mackenzie, it combined with the Northwest Company in 1821, and obtained a more extensive charter. It was ever the most formidable rival of the United States as a claimant of the northwest regions. Despite the treaty of 1783, which granted that territory to the United States, the company persisted in making settlements, and, being on the disputed ground, it had the advantage of the US Government. Every possible means was employed, and for a long time successfully, to prevent immigration from the United States. The Selkirk settlement in Oregon was made in 1811-12, and later it was decided to seize and hold Oregon by force, turning over the Indians to the Jesuits and furnishing troops to protect the priests and repel intruders. The boundary settlement of 1846 finally excluded the company. Research Hudson Bay Company
Prohibition is usually thought of as the legal ban on the sale and consumption of alcoholic liquor. Prohibition is usually promoted by religious fundamentalists, and historically has proven a disastrous experiment.
In America, which has a long history of indulgence in prohibition, it appeared first as an issue in purely State politics in the Maine Legislature in 1837, a prohibitory bill being introduced, but defeated. Later, in 1846 (and permanently in 1851), a prohibitory law was passed in Maine. Following the lead of Maine, prohibitory laws were enacted between 1850 and 1856, in Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Vermont, Michigan, New York, Iowa and Connecticut. Other States tried the experiment and local option has been established in some of the towns and counties of these and many other States.
Prohibition first appeared as a national issue in America during the session of the Right Worthy Grand Lodge of Good Templars, held in Oswego, New York on May the 25th, 1869. A committee was appointed to issue a call for a convention. This convention assembled at Chicago on September 1st, 1869, and formed the National Prohibition Reform party. The first nominating convention of this party was held at ColumbusOhio on February the 22nd, 1872. James Black, of Pennsylvania, was nominated for President and polled 5608 votes.
Prohibition was largely entered into both national and State politics since that time, but is most influential in the States. In 1876 Henry Blair, of New Hampshire, introduced into the House a joint resolution to amend the Federal Constitution by prohibiting from and after 1900 the manufacture and sale of distilled alcoholic intoxicating liquors. It was not adopted. In national politics the Prohibition vote steadily increased. In 1876 its Presidential candidate, Green Clay Smith, received 9522 votes; in 1880 Neal Dow received 10,305; in 1884 John St John, 150,369; in 1888 Clinton Fiske, 250,290; in 1892 John Bidwell, 268,361.
During the Great War a temporary Wartime Prohibition Act was passed in the USA to save grain for use as food and in 1919 the National Prohibition Act, popularly known as the Volstead Act after its promoter, Congressman Andrew Volstead, was enacted, providing enforcement guidelines and the 18th Amendment was introduced banning the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within and the importation of same into the United States. This resulted in the birth of organised gangs of criminals illegally distilling, importing and selling alcoholic liquor to the masses. This in turn led to gang warfare between rival criminal gangs, a plethora of killings and the notorious gangsters of the 20's. In 1933 prohibition was repealed in the USA by the passing of the 21st Amendment which repealed the 18th Amendment, and once more allowed the manufacture, sale and importation of alcoholic liquor in the United States.
A stagecoach or stage-coach was a public horse-drawn conveyance, plying regularly by stages between two towns. British stagecoaches were large, four-wheeled covered carriages, with seats inside and out, a guard's dicky, and a boot or receptacle for luggage, letters and parcels, and were drawn by between two and eight horses. Until the 19th century British stagecoaches travelled slowly, owing to the bad state of the roads. In 1784 a stagecoach operating between London and Bristol, operated by John Palmer MP was the first stagecoach to carry letters.
After 1784 there was a steady improvement in stagecoach design with lighter vehicles, called 'flying coaches', being introduced which could often attain a speed of 12 mph (19 kmh). Between 1820 and 1840 keen competition between rival stagecoach companies produced the best levels of passenger comfort. Stagecoaches were often named, the 'Taglioni' being a four-horse stagecoach that operated between Windsor and London around 1837. Research Stagecoach
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Aetolian League
