Elasticity is the property in virtue of which bodies resist change of volume and change of shape, and recover their former figure or state after external pressure, tension, or distortion. The former is called elasticity of volume, the latter elasticity of shape. The name Compressibility is also used in connection with the elasticity of volume; and Rigidity, or resistance to change of shape, in connection with the latter. Fluids possess no rigidity whatever;. they offer no permanent resistance to change of shape; while a solid body, unless it is distorted beyond certain limits, called the limits of elasticity, tends to return to its original form. Both fluids and solids possess elasticity of volume, and tend to resume their original volume after compression. The elasticity of volume of the former is perfect; whatever compression they have been subjected to, they return under the same conditions of temperature to precisely their original volumes when the forces of compression are removed. In the case of solids there are limits to their elasticity of volume as well as to their elasticity of form; thus gold may be made permanently denser by hammering. There is one law of elasticity, the celebrated law of Hooke - Ut Tensio sicVis, which translated into the modern language of elasticity states - Strain is proportional to stress; or, in other words, whatever be the nature of the distortion the amount of it is proportional to the stress that produces it. This law is only considered as applicable so long as we do not go beyond the limits of elasticity. Also of relevance to elasticity is Boyle's Law, which deals with gasses. Research Elasticity
Golf is a game played with clubs and balls over large commons, downs, or links. It is said to have originated in Holland, and the word golf itself is doubtfully derived from the Dutch kolf, a club. It has been played in Scotland for centuries, and there are several references to the game in Scottish Acts of Parliament, as in one passed in 1491 under James IV, which classes football and 'gouff' with 'uthir sic unproffitable sportis'. It was not until the middle of the nineteenth century that the game really began to take root in England, although the golf club with the oldest records is that at Blackheath, founded by James I, or his Scottish courtiers. Apart from this, the first English golf club was started at Westward Ho, Devon, in 1864; and gradually this was followed by other clubs all over the country. The Royal and Ancient Club of St Andrews (founded in 1754) is the recognized head-quarters of the game in the United Kingdom, and long laid down the law for the golfing community. Towards the start of the 20th century a Rules of Golf Committee was formed; but all its members were members of the St Andrewsclub, which
thus practically maintained its supremacy. Other well-known golf courses or links are at North Berwick, Prestwick (near Ayr), and Muirfield (Haddingtonshire), in Scotland ; Westward Ho, Hoylake, and Sandwich, in England; and Portrush, in Ireland. A golf club was founded at Calcutta in 1829, Bombay and Pau (in the south of France) coming next in order. The game spread to the United States, through Canada, about 1890, and quickly become amazingly popular there within the next fifteen years.
A golf-course of full size is divided into eighteen sections by a series of small round holes, 4.25 inches in diameter, sunk in the turf at distances of from 100 to 500 yards from each other, so as to form a circuit or round; many courses have only nine holes. The ground between the holes must be varied in character, being diversified by obstacles, whether natural or artificial, such as sand or other 'bunkers', hillocks, ditches, streams, etc. Round each hole a grass-grown space, known as the 'putting-green', is kept perfectly smooth. The object of the game is, starting from the first 'teeing-ground' (or place from which the balls are driven off towards each hole), to drive the ball into the next hole in as few strokes as possible, and so on with all the holes in succession, the side which 'holes out' on any occasion in the fewest strokes being said to win the hole. The match is decided either by the greatest number of holes won, or by the aggregate number of strokes for the whole round. In medal play, and in some championships, the score is always reckoned by strokes. Often what are known as 'Bogey' competitions are held. 'ColonelBogey', who is a kind of 'Mrs. Harris' of golf, has a fixed score allotted to him for each hole, this score being approximately that of a good player who accomplishes the round without making any bad blunders - the term par later being applied, thus a hole which should be completed in four strokes is known as a par 4 hole. The competitors contest each hole with this mythical opponent, and the winner is he who finishes the greatest number of holes 'up', or more generally the least number 'down', on 'Bogey' (under par).
Ordinarily the ball may not be touched otherwise than with the club during the game, except to take it out of the hole and place it in position on the teeing-ground (the 'tee' being a little mound of sand, on which the ball is placed for the first drive to each hole). Sometimes, however, the local rules of a club recognize certain places on the course from which the ball is practically unplayable, and if a ball lodges in one of these places the player is allowed to take it out and drop it behind him under penalty of one stroke.
The varying nature of the ground on a golf-course, and the different obstacles to be surmounted, necessitate the use of a number of different clubs. The chief clubs are the driver, brassy, deck, mashie, iron, niblick, and putter. Of these the first two have wooden heads, the rest iron, though the putter is often made of aluminium. The heads of wooden clubs are made of beech, persimmon, or logwood, weighted with lead behind, and protected with horn at the bottom. The shafts were usually of hickory and were spliced to the heads and bound with strong twine - later carbon fiber became common place. The driver is the club used for the first drive from the teeing-ground, but may also be used for other strokes if the 'lie' of the ball is good. It is the longest club of all, and has an exceedingly springy and supple shaft. A good driver will send the ball, if accurately hit, more than 200 yards. The brassy is a somewhat similar club, but is shorter, less springy, and is shod with a brass plate. Its face is laid back somewhat, so as to 'loft' the ball, and it is used in fairly good 'lies' on grass. The deck, an iron club with a flat face, is used for drives of from 100 to 150 yards, or where the lie of the ball is such that a wooden club cannot be used. Both the mashie and the iron are used for lofting the ball out of bunkers or over obstacles, or for short 'approaches', and accordingly have their faces laid back, the mashie having the shorter head of the two. The niblick has a very short spoon-shaped head, and serves to extricate the ball from deep sand, small holes, and formerly cart-ruts, etc. The putter is used on the putting-green for coaxing the ball into the hole from short distances.
The ball, which was originally of feathers covered with leather, was latterly always made of gutta-percha, and by 1910 usually consisted of a core round which india-rubber thread is wound, the whole being cased with gutta-percha, later balls were very similar, the outer casing being plastic however. These balls have been found to be more springy, and can be driven farther than the older gutta-percha balls.
As early as 1905 golf was a popular game with women, competitions being played among both men and among women seperately. The popularity of golf with women caused a great deal of excitement among Victorian society.
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