An artificial person is a person whose identity is recognised by the law but who is not an individual. For example, a company is a person in the sense that it can sue and be sued, hold property, etc. in its own name. It is not, however, an individual or real person. Research Artificial Person
Breach of contract is a failure by a party to a contract to perform his obligations under that contract or an indication of his intention not to do so. An indication that a contract will be breached in the future is called repudiation or an anticipatory breach; it may be either expressed in words or implied from conduct. Such an implication arises when the only reasonable inference from a person's acts is that he does not intend to fulfil his part of the bargain. For example, an anticipatory breach occurs if a person contracts to sell his car to A but sells and delivers it to B before the delivery date agreed with A. The repudiation of a contract entitles the injured party to treat the contract as discharged and to sue immediately for damages for the loss sustained.
The same procedure only applies to an actual breach if it constitutes a fundamental breach, i.e. a breach of a major term of the contract. In either an anticipatory or an actual breach, the injured party may, however, decide to affirm the contract instead. When an actual breach relates only to a minor term of the contract (a warranty) the injured party may sue for damages but has no right to treat the contract as discharged. The process of treating a contract as discharged by reason of repudiation or actual breach is sometimes referred to as rescission. Other remedies available under certain circumstances for breach of contract are an injunction and specific performance. Research Breach of Contract
The Chisholm Case was a legal proceeding in the USA that eventually led, through the enactment of the 11th Amendment to the US. Constitution, to a limitation on the jurisdiction of the federal courts. Decided in 1793 by the US. Supreme Court, the case of Chisholm v. Georgia (2 Dallas 419) was brought against the state of Georgia by Alexander Chisholm, a citizen of South Carolina, regarding an inheritance of which he was the legatee. The Supreme Court took jurisdiction under ArticleIII, Section 2, of the Constitution, which confers jurisdiction on the federal courts in cases between a state and citizens of another state. Georgia challenged both the right of citizens to sue state governments and the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in such cases. The Supreme Court ruling affirmed the jurisdiction of the courts.
On March the 5th, 1794, Congress passed the 11th Amendment, which was ratified on February the 7th, 1795. It removed from the jurisdiction of the federal courts cases in which a citizen of one state is the plaintiff and the government of another state is the defendant; it limited the jurisdiction of the federal courts to cases in which the government of a state is the plaintiff and the citizen of another state is the defendant. Research Chisholm Case
The Dred Scott vs. Sanford case was a slave incident that occurred in America. In 1834 Dred Scott, a negro slave of Missouri, was taken by his master, who was a surgeon in the regular army, first into Illinois and then into Minnesota, a region from which slavery was expressly excluded by the celebrated Missouri Compromise of 1820. While in MinnesotaDred Scott was married with his master's consent, but on being brought back to Missouri in 1838, he and his wife and children were sold to another master.
Dred Scott brought action for trespass in a St Louiscourt, and a decision was made in his favour on the ground that, under the provisions of the Missouri Compromise, the negro was free. The Supreme Court of Missouri reversed this decision, and the case came before the Federal CircuitCourt in 1854. The defendant slave-holder pleaded that Dred Scott was not a citizen entitled to sue and be sued in the US Courts. The court held the contrary, but the jury's verdict decided the plaintiff still a slave. The case came before the Supreme Court of the United States in 1857. Here the judgment of the CircuitCourt was reversed, and the case dismissed on the ground that no negro, bond or free, could plead in the US Courts as a citizen. The court then, though denying its jurisdiction over the dispute, discussed the constitutional points. Dred Scott's status in Illinois was declared determined by his Missouridomicile. As regarded the Minnesota Territory the court declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional and void, it being held that States alone could prohibit slavery from their boundaries. Chief Justice Taney read the opinion of a majority of the court, all slave-holders, declaring 'negroes so inferior that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect'. Justices Curtis and McLean dissented. Dred Scott was afterwards freed by his master. The decision and case roused great excitement in the North. Research Dred Scott vs. Sanford
Gaming, or gambling is the practice of indulging in games involving some element of chance or hazard with a view to pecuniary gain.
In many countries such games, and the collateral practices of betting on events, taking shares in lotteries, etc, are legally prohibited or restricted as frequently associated with fraud and as themselves demoralizing. At other times governments, tempted by the prospect of gain, have openly encouraged gambling by licensing gaming- houses, or instituting lotteries under their own authority. In France public gaming-tables were suppressed from the 1st of January, 1838, but lotteries were still sometimes carried on.
Previous to the formation of the German Empire gambling was encouraged in both of the ways referred to in several of the principalities of Germany. Baden-Baden, in the Grand-duchy of Baden, and Homburg, in Hesse-Homburg, were the two most famous resorts in Europe of the frequenters of gaming-tables. After the formation of the empire gaming was suppressed in these places on the 31st of December, 1872, and after that time the Italian principality of Monaco became the last public resort of this species of gambling, quickly developing into a world famous gaming center even after a relaxation of gaming rules in other European countries during the 20th century.
In Great Britain gaming has been the subject of numerous enactments. Henry VIII made proclamation against certain games, including dice, cards, and bowls, and prohibited the keeping of any common house for unlawful games under penalties of 40 shillings per day for keeping the house, and 6s. 8d per time for playing in it.
By an act of Charles II in 1663 any person fraudulently winning money by gaming was to forfeit treble the amount, and any person losing more than 100 pounds at cards, etc, on credit at one sitting was not bound to pay, and the winner forfeited treble the amount.
Under Anne all notes, bills, bonds, etc, given for money won by gaming were decreed void, and any person paying a loss of more than 10 pounds might recover it within three months as a common debt; or if the loser did not sue, any other person might do so. In the reign of William IV such notes were declared void between the parties, but not in the hands of purchasers or endorsers.
By acts of George II keepers of public-houses were punishable for permitting gaming, and the games of faro, hazard, roulette, and all other games with dice, except backgammon, are prohibited under penalties. This law, with amendments is still in force in 2009 with cribbage, dominoes and other games of pure skill allowed to be played in public-houses for moderate stakes.
An act of 1845, while repealing some of the previous acts and exempting games of mere skill, including billiards and dominoes, inflicted the penalty of 100 pounds (afterwards increased to a maximum of 500 pounds) on any person keeping a gaming-house, with the alternative of six months' imprisonment. Cards and other games could of course be played in private houses, but not in gaming-houses, or in such a way as to constitute a nuisance. Persons playing or gaming in public places could be punished as rogues and vagabonds. Penalties were inflicted for keeping billiard
or bagatelle tables without a license. Lotteries and raffles were illegal (but art union lotteries were excepted). Persons fraudulently winning money by gaming were deemed guilty of obtaining it by false pretences. No suit-at-law could be brought against a loser for money won at play or to recover money so lost, or to recover a deposit from a stakeholder; but this did not apply to prizes at any lawful sport. Later acts provide that betting-houses should be considered gaming-houses. Any person found in a gaming-house who gave a false name or address was liable to a fine of fifty pounds. Research Gaming
The olive is an evergreen tree native to Asia and the countries bordering the Mediterranean. The trees have sharp, slender leaves of a greyish green colour resembling, but somewhat smaller than, those of the willow.
In folklore, the olive is emblematic of chastity, and in ancient Greece the newly wed bride wore an olive garland, and emblematic of peace. Traditionaly, those vanquished and wishing to sue for peace carried an olive branch. Research Olive
Abd-ul-Hamid II also known as Abdul Hamid II ('The Great Assassin') was the last Sultan of Turkey. He was born in 1842 at Constantinople (now Istanbul) and died in 1918. He succeeded his brother Murad V, who was deposed on proof of his insanity in 1876, as Sultan.
Abd-ul-Hamid passed the first Ottoman constitution in 1876. At that time Turkey, which was at war with Serbia, was compelled to agree to an armistice at the demand of Russia. The persecution and oppression of the Christian population of Bulgaria had roused remonstrances from other European countries, and a congress met at Constantinople (Istanbul) to consider a constitution which the Porte had proclaimed. The conference was a failure, and in April, 1877, war was declared by Russia. During the sanguinary struggle which ensued the Turks fought with great bravery, but they had ultimately to sue for peace. A treaty was signed at San Stefano in February 1878, but its provisions were modified by a congress of the great powers which met at Berlin. Turkey was compelled to part with some of its choicest provinces, while the sultan also ceded the island of Cyprus to be occupied and administered by Britain, which in turn agreed to guarantee his Asiatic dominions to the sultan.
Abd-ul-Hamid suspended the Ottoman constitution in 1878 and thereafter ruling as absolute monarch. Abd-ul-Hamid's reign was further disturbed in 1885 by a revolution in Eastern Rumelia, and was stained by the massacre of many thousands of Armenians.
Revolution in Turkey forced him to restore the constitution in 1908 and summon a parliament, in 1909 he attempted a counter-revolution and was deposed and exiled. Research Abd-ul-Hamid II
Charles the Bold was Duke of Burgundy. He was born in 1433 at Dijon. He was the son of Philip the Good and Isabella of Portugal. While his father yet lived Charles left Burgundy, and forming an alliance with some of the great French nobles for the purpose of preserving the power of the feudal nobility, he marched on Paris with 20,000 men, defeated Louis XI at Montlheri, and won the counties of Boulogne, Guines, and Ponthieu. Succeeding his father in 1467 he commenced his reign by severe repression of the citizens of Liege and Ghent.
In 1468 he married Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV of England. Liege having rebelled, the duke stormed and sacked the town. In 1470 the war with France was renewed, and although the duke was forced to sue for a truce he soon took up arms anew, and, crossing the Somme, stormed and fired the city of Nesle. Louis meanwhile involved him in greater embarrassments by exciting against him Austria and the Swiss. Charles, ever ready to take up a quarrel, threw himself on Germany with characteristic fury, and lost ten months in a futile siege of Neuss. He was successful, however, in conquering Lorraine from Duke Rene.
Charles now turned his arms against the Swiss, took the city of Granson, putting 800 men to the sword. But this cruelty was speedily avenged by the descent of a Swiss army, which at the first shock routed the duke's forces at Granson, on March the 3rd, 1476. Mad with rage and shame Charles gathered another army, invaded Switzerland, and was again defeated with great loss at Moral. The Swiss, led by the Duke of Lorraine, now undertook the reconquest of Lorraine, and obtained possession of Nancy. Charles marched to recover it, but was utterly routed and himself slain. The house of Burgundy ended in him, and his death Without male heirs removed the greatest of those independent feudal lords whose power stood in the way of the growth of the French monarchy. His daughter Mary married Maximilian of Germany, but most of his French territory passed into the hands of the French king. Research Charles The Bold
Danica Sue Patrick is an American racing driver. She was born in 1982 at Beloit, Wisconsin. She is known for driving for Rahal-Letterman racing in the American Indy Racing League. In 2000 she finished second in the Formula Ford festival and was fourth in the 2005 Indianapolis 500 auto race. Research Danica Patrick
Marie Joseph Eugene Sue (also known as Eugene Sue) was a French novelist and surgeon. He was born in 1804 at Paris and died in 1857. He served as a naval and military surgeon, seeing service in Spain in 1823 and at Navarino in 1828 before coming into prominence as a contributor to the La Presse newspaper before publishing several novels. In 1850 he became deputy for the Seine and in 1851 a political exile. Research Marie Sue
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Artificial Person
