The dissolution of the monasteries in England was carried out by Henry VIII between 1535 and 1539. This was an attack on Church property for three reasons. First, the monks were the main supporters of the Papal authority in England, and they were members of orders which were spread over Europe. It had proved possible to separate the English bishops and clergy from allegiance to the Pope; this was not possible with the monastic orders, which were international, not insular, institutions. The second reason was the wealth of the monasteries, which was the result of the pious bequest of many centuries. The cry against monastic wealth had been raised many times previously in English history, particularly by John Wycliffe and others from the time of Edward III and Richard II. The courtiers of Henry VIII and the rising middle class were greedy for land, and Henry VIII saw that by ministering to their greed he could make his new nobility and their new property a firm support of his Reformation. The third reason for ending the monasteries was
the reason given to Parliament: that the monks had outlived their day of usefulness and were abandoned to idleness and vice. There were over 600 religious houses in England, and no doubt there was some truth in this charge. Zealous churchmen had long known that all was not well with these ancient institutions. In Henry VII's reign the Oxford Reformers had rebuked monkish follies, and CardinalMorton had noted the 'incurable uselessness' of many of the smaller houses where the monks were idle and ignorant. CardinalWolsey had obtained a Papal Bull to visit the monasteries, and had begun to suppress some, intending to use their revenues for the benefit of education and the New Learning and to found new bishoprics. One of them, St. Frideswide's Priory at Oxford, he converted into Cardinal College (later Christ Church).
In 1535 Henry VIII made Thomas Cromwell his Vicar-General, 'with power to visit any monastery in England'. The character of Cromwell was sufficient guarantee that the visitation would not be conducted fairly. He knew what was expected of him; he was to be 'The Hammer of the Monks'. His agents hurried through England, visited some of the monasteries, and drew up an evil report. This report unfortunately no longer exists. Our only information is derived from Cromwell's note-books and from the letters of his agents, from which we may gather something of their methods. For example, Dr. Layton, vicar of Harrow-on-the-Hill, dashed through southern England from Gloucestershire to Rent between August and October 1535. He condemned monasteries wholesale, on insufficient evidence, although at the same time he did not scruple to accept bribes from some, or to help himself to plate and jewels from others.
However, Parliament was satisfied, and the country squires, anxious for the 'goods of the Church', shouted ' Down with them!' The Act dissolving 276 of the lesser monasteries of England in 1536 was the last important Act of the Reformation Parliament. In dissolving the smaller monasteries first, Henry VIII had cautiously tested his power. But his violent measures had by 1536 caused grave discontent, especially in the west and north, and in Parliament itself. His wholesale destruction of the smaller monasteries was followed by two popular uprisings. The first occurred in Lincolnshire, where the rebels were crushed by a military force under the Duke of Suffolk. The second rising, in Yorkshire in 1536, known as the Pilgrimage of Grace, was much more serious. The following year the famous shrine of Becket at Canterbury was attacked. Thomas Becket was declared in April 1538 'a false saint and a traitor to the Supreme Head of the Church'; his bones were burnt; his shrine pillaged and its offerings confiscated.
Then Henry VIII was ready to turn his attention to the greater monasteries, although Parliament had saved them earlier because of their good conduct. Cromwell and his agents in 1539 began a persecution of the abbots: many were induced to surrender their abbeys to the king; others could only be reduced by methods of terror. The Abbots of Reading and Colchester were tried for treason; the Abbot of Glastonbury for felony. All three were executed. The odious methods of Cromwell are well shown in some notes left in his own handwriting: 'To see that the evidence be well sorted and the indictments well drawn against the said abbots. The Abbot of Reading to be sent down to be tried and executed at Reading with his accomplices. The Abbot of Glaston to be tried at Glaston, and also executed there with his accomplices.' The last Abbot of Glastonbury, a pious, venerable man beloved in the countryside, was executed with two of his brethren on GlastonburyTor, after a mock trial in November 1539. These ferocities had the desired effect: many less brave spirits gave in, and soon there were no monasteries left. The dissolution of 616 religious houses was the greatest revolution in the ownership of land in England since the Norman Conquest. The monastic income has been variously estimated at between one-fifth and one-third of the total rental of England.
This newly acquired wealth the king might have used in developing public works, such as education. Some of it was spent in re-building the Navy; but the king's own greed and the greed of courtiers swallowed most of the spoil. A thousand newly enriched families became the nobility on which Henry in future relied for support. The 'Abbey' where the descendants or successors of these Tudor families now live is a name to be found in many an English village. But sad indeed was the fate of the original buildings. Some, like the great church at Tewkesbury, have been preserved in the form of parish churches; others have been partly preserved to form cathedrals. But the greater number were ruthlessly destroyed by their new possessors, their roofs despoiled for the valuable lead, their walls made quarries for new buildings, their treasures scattered, and their ruins left desolate. Whatever defence may be made for the suppression of the monastic orders, no excuse can be offered for this orgy of destruction, which deprived England of some of her noblest monuments.
It is probable that at least 15000 persons were cast adrift. These people went to swell the already large number of the unemployed, for whom Tudor statesmanship could find no better relief than the savage punishments inflicted on thieves and vagabonds. Some of the monks were given benefices or pensioned by the Government, but the pensions were not always paid; the occupants of the lesser houses fared worse than those of the greater. The hospitality which the monks had always given to the poor was now removed. There was nothing to take its place, and many monks and nuns joined the ranks of those who had formerly subsisted on their charity. Many gaps were left in national life, for the abbeys, said Aske 'were one of the beauties of this realm to all men and strangers passing through the same; all gentlemen much succoured in their needs with money, and in nunneries their daughters brought up in virtue. And such abbeys as were near the danger of seabanks were great maintainers of sea-walls and dykes, builders of bridges and highways, and such other things for the commonwealth.' Research Dissolution of the Monasteries
Pavel Josef Savarik was a Slovakphilologist. He was born in 1795 at Kobeliarov, Hungary and died in 1861 at Prague. He was a leading figure of the Czech national revival and a pioneer of Slavonic philology and archaeology. He was director of the Serbian Orthodox grammar school at Novi Sad before settling in Prague in 1833. In 1841 he turned down an invitation to occupy the chair of Slavonic philology at Berlin, preferring to remain a private scholar in his own country, researching and writing about the history and languages of the Slav people. Research Pavel Safarik
Robert Tannahill was a Scottish poet and weaver. He was born in 1774 at Paisley and died in 1810. He was a sad man, and ultimately drowned himself. Research Robert Tannahill
Thomas Carlyle was a British essayist, historian, and philosopher. He was born in 1795 at Ecclefechan and died in 1881 at Chelsea. He was the eldest son of James Carlyle, a mason, afterwards a farmer, and was intended for the church, with which object he was carefully educated at the parish school and afterwards at the burgh school of Annan. In his fifteenth year (in 1810) he was sent to the University of Edinburgh, where he developed a strong taste for mathematics. Having renounced the idea of becoming a minister, after finishing his curriculum in 1814 he became a teacher for about four years, first at Annan, afterwards
at Kirkcaldy.
In 1818 he removed to Edinburgh, where he supported himself by literary work, devoted much time to the study of German, and went through a varied and extensive course of reading in history, poetry, romance, and other fields. His first literary productions were short biographies and other articles for the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia. His career as an author may be said to have begun with the issue in monthly portions of his Life of Schiller in the London Magazine, in 1823, this work being enlarged and published separately in 1825. In 1824 he published a translation of Legendre's Geometry, with an essay on proportion by himself prefixed. The same year appeared his translation of Goethe's Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship. He was next engaged in translating specimens of the German romance writers, published in four volumes in 1827. In 1826 he married Miss Jane Bailie Welsh, daughter of a doctor at Haddington, and a lineal descendant of John Knox.
After his marriage he resided for a time in Edinburgh, and then withdrew to Craigenputtock, a farm in Dumfriesshire belonging to his wife, about fifteen miles from the town of Dumfries. Here he wrote a number of critical and biographical articles for various periodicals; and here was written Sartor Resartus, the most original of his works. The writing of Sartor Resartus seems to have been finished in 1831, but the publishers were shy of it, and it was not given to the public until 1833-34, through the medium of Fraser's Magazine.
The publication of Sartor soon made Thomas Carlyle famous, and on his removal to London early in 1834 he became a prominent member of a brilliant literary circle embracing John Stuart Mill, Leigh Hunt, John Sterling, Julius Charles and Augustus William Hare, P D Maurice, etc. He fixed his abode at Cheyne Row, Chelsea, where his life henceforth was mainly spent.
His next work of importance was on the French Revolution, published in 1837. About this time, and on one or two subsequent years, he delivered several series of lectures, the most important of these, On Heroes and Hero-worship, being published in 1840. Chartism, published in 1839, and Past and Present, in 1843, were small works bearing more or less on the affairs of the time. In 1845 appeared his Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches, with Elucidations, a work of great research, and brilliantly successful in vindicating the character of the great Protector. In 1850 came out his Latter-day Pamphlets. This work was very repulsive to many from the exaggeration of its language, and its advocacy of harsh and coercive measures. He next wrote a life of his friend John Sterling, published in 1851, and regarded as a finished and artistic performance.
The largest and most laborious work of his life, The History of Friedrich II of Prussia, called Frederick the Great, next appeared, the first two volumes in 1858, the second two in 1862, and the last two in 1865, and after this time little came from his pen. In 1866, having been elected LordRector of Edinburgh University, he delivered an installation address to the students On the Choice of Books. While still in Scotland the sad news reached him that his wife had died suddenly in London. This was a severe blow to Thomas Carlyle. Mrs. Carlyle, besides being a woman of exceptional intellect, was a most devoted and affectionate wife. From this time his productions were mostly articles or letters on topics of the day, including Shooting Niagara; and After? in which he gave vent to his serious misgivings as to the result of the Reform Bill of 1867. An unimportant historical sketch, The Early Kings of Norway, appeared in 1874, but was written long before.
Towards the end of his life he was offered a government pension and a baronetcy, but declined both. He left the estate of Craigenputtock to the University of Edinburgh, settling that the income from it should form ten bursaries to be annually competed for - five for proficiency in mathematics and five for classics (including English). He had appointed James Anthony Froude his literary executor, who, in conformity with his trust, published Reminiscences of Thomas Carlyle, in 1881; Thomas Carlyle: the First Forty Years of his Life, in 1882; Letters of Jane Welsh Carlyle in 1883; and Thomas Carlyle: Life in London published in 1884; The character of Thomas Carlyle presented in these volumes gave an unexpected shock to the public, and a bitter controversy has raged regarding Froude's conduct in the matter. Meantime the reputation of Carlyle has suffered somewhat. Research Thomas Carlyle
Twenex was the TOPS-20 operating system by DEC - the second proprietary OS for the PDP-10. TOPS-20 began in 1969 as Bolt, Beranek & Newman's TENEX operating system using special paging hardware. By the early 1970s, almost all of the systems on the ARPANET ran TENEX. DEC purchased the rights to TENEX from BBN and began work to make it their own. The first in-house code name for the operating system was VIROS; when customers started asking questions, the name was changed to SNARK so DEC could truthfully deny that there was any project called VIROS. When the name SNARK became known, the name was briefly reversed to become KRANS; this was quickly abandoned when someone objected that `krans' meant `funeral wreath' in Swedish (though some Swedish speakers have since said it means simply `wreath'; this part of the story may be apocryphal). Ultimately DEC picked TOPS-20 as the name of the operating system, and it was as TOPS-20 that it was marketed. The hacker community, mindful of its origins, quickly dubbed it TWENEX (a contraction of `twenty
TENEX'), even though by this point very little of the original TENEX code remained (analogously to the differences between AT&T V6 UNIX and BSD). DEC people cringed when they heard 'TWENEX', but the term caught on nevertheless (the written abbreviation ` 20x' was also used). TWENEX was successful and very popular; in fact, there was a period in the early 1980s when it commanded as fervent a culture of partisans as UNIX or ITS but DEC's decision to scrap all the internal rivals to the VAXarchitecture and its relatively stodgy VMSOS killed the DEC-20 and put a sad end to TWENEX's brief day in the sun. DEC attempted to convince TOPS-20 hackers to convert to VMS, but instead, by the late 1980s, most of the TOPS-20 hackers had migrated to UNIX. Research Twenex
SAD is an abbreviation for Satellite Attitude Dynamics
SAD is an abbreviation for Status Advisory Display
SAD is an abbreviation for Seasonal Affective Disorder Research SAD
SC is an abbreviation for StatisticsCanada
SC is an abbreviation for Seychelles
SC is an abbreviation for Secondary Channel
SC is an abbreviation for Sectional Centre
SC is an abbreviation for South Carolina
SC is an abbreviation for Subcommittee
SC is an abbreviation for Segment Control
SC is an abbreviation for Serial Command
SC is an abbreviation for ShoeCove
SC is an abbreviation for Small Capitals
SC is an abbreviation for Spacecraft
SC is an abbreviation for Stored Command
SC is an abbreviation for Supercalendered
SC is an abbreviation for Supreme Court
SC is an abbreviation for System Concept
SC is an abbreviation for School Certificate
SC is an abbreviation for Sad Case
SC is an abbreviation for Same Case
SC is an abbreviation for Separate Cover
SC is an abbreviation for Shaped Charge
SC is an abbreviation for Single Circuit
SC is an abbreviation for Single Contact
SC is an abbreviation for Single Crochet
SC is an abbreviation for Sized and Calendered
SC is an abbreviation for Slow Cool
SC is an abbreviation for Small Capital letters
SC is an abbreviation for Smooth Contour
SC is an abbreviation for Statistical Control
SC is an abbreviation for Super-Cycle
SC is an abbreviation for Superimposed Current
SC is an abbreviation for Site Contractor
SC is an abbreviation for Spinal Cord
SC is an abbreviation for Systolic Click
SC is an abbreviation for Sacra Congregatio (SacredCongregation)
SC is an abbreviation for Sacramento City
SC is an abbreviation for Salem College
SC is an abbreviation for SandiaCorporation
SC is an abbreviation for Sanitary Corps
SC is an abbreviation for Scripps College
SC is an abbreviation for Seamen's Center
SC is an abbreviation for Security Council
SC is an abbreviation for Selwyn College
SC is an abbreviation for Service Club
SC is an abbreviation for Service Command
SC is an abbreviation for Shasta College
SC is an abbreviation for Shaw College
SC is an abbreviation for Shell Transport
SC is an abbreviation for Shelton College
SC is an abbreviation for Shenandoah College
SC is an abbreviation for Shepherd College
SC is an abbreviation for Sheridan College
SC is an abbreviation for Shimer College
SC is an abbreviation for Ship's Cook
SC is an abbreviation for Shorter College
SC is an abbreviation for Siena College
SC is an abbreviation for Sierra College
SC is an abbreviation for Signal Corps
SC is an abbreviation for Simmons College
SC is an abbreviation for Simpson College
SC is an abbreviation for Sinclair College
SC is an abbreviation for Sister of Charity
SC is an abbreviation for Skidmore College
SC is an abbreviation for Smith College
SC is an abbreviation for Somerville College
SC is an abbreviation for South Carolinian
SC is an abbreviation for Southern California
SC is an abbreviation for Southern Californian
SC is an abbreviation for Southern Conference
SC is an abbreviation for Southwestern College
SC is an abbreviation for Special Constable
SC is an abbreviation for Spelman College
SC is an abbreviation for Springfield College
SC is an abbreviation for Staff College
Sc is an abbreviation for Staff Corps
SC is an abbreviation for Stephens College
SC is an abbreviation for Sterling College
SC is an abbreviation for Stockton College
SC is an abbreviation for Stonehill College
SC is an abbreviation for Stratford College
SC is an abbreviation for Strike Command
SC is an abbreviation for Submarine Chaser
SC is an abbreviation for Sullins College
SC is an abbreviation for Summary Court
SC is an abbreviation for Sumter & Choctaw
SC is an abbreviation for Suomi College
SC is an abbreviation for Supply Corps
SC is an abbreviation for Support Command
SC is an abbreviation for Surgical Corporation
SC is an abbreviation for Swarthmore College
SC is an abbreviation for Systems Command Research SC
The Le Temeraire is a French Navy Ballistic Missile Nuclear Powered Submarine of the Triomphant Class with a surface displacement of 12,640 tons and a submerged displacement of 14,120 tons. The submarine was designed and built at DCN's production facility at its Cherbourg shipyard. The submarine carries 16 vertically launched ballistic missiles, the Aerospatiale type Mer-Sol Balistique Strategique (MSBS) M45 The submarine is equipped with a Systeme d'Armes de Dissuasion (SAD) strategic data system for control of the M45 ballistic missile. The submarine's surface to surface missile is the Aerospatiale Exocet SM39. The submarine has four 533 mm torpedo tubes and has the capacity to carry a mixed load of 18 ECAN L5 Mod 3 torpedoes and Exocet missiles. The torpedo, armed with a 150 kilogram warhead, is equipped with both active and passive homing. The range is over 9 kilometres and speed 35 knots. The submarine's propulsion system is a nuclear turbo-electric system based on a Type K15 Pressure Water Reactor (PWR) supplying 150 MW. The auxiliary propulsion system is diesel electric, with two SEMT-Pielstick 8 PA 4 v 200 SM diesels. Le Temeraire has a submerged speed in excess of 25 knots and a surface speed of 20 knots. The diving depth is more than 300 metres. The endurance of the submarine is over 60 days. The complement is 110 including 15 officers. Research Le Temeraire
The Le Triomphant is the French Navy Ballistic Missile Nuclear Powered Submarine of the Triomphant Class with a surface displacement of 12,640 tons and a submerged displacement of 14,120 tons. She is intended to replace the L'InflexibleM4 class. The submarine was designed and built at DCN's production facility at its Cherbourg shipyard. This first of class submarine was launched in July 1993 and entered service in 1997. The submarine carries 16 vertically launched ballistic missiles, the Aerospatiale type Mer-Sol Balistique Strategique (MSBS) M45 The submarine is equipped with a Systeme d'Armes de Dissuasion (SAD) strategic data system for control of the M45 ballistic missile. The submarine's surface to surface missile is the Aerospatiale Exocet SM39. The submarine has four 533 mm torpedo tubes and has the capacity to carry a mixed load of 18 ECAN L5 Mod 3 torpedoes and Exocet missiles. The torpedo, armed with a 150 kilogram warhead, is equipped with both active and passive homing. The range is over 9 kilometres and speed 35 knots. The submarine's propulsion system is a nuclear turbo- electric system based on a Type K15 Pressure Water Reactor (PWR) supplying 150 MW. The auxiliary propulsion system is diesel electric, with two SEMT-Pielstick 8 PA 4 v 200 SM diesels. Le Triomphant has a submerged speed in excess of 25 knots and a surface speed of 20 knots. The diving depth is more than 300 metres. The endurance of the submarine is over 60 days. The complement is 110 including 15 officers. Research Le Triomphant II
Abbreviations
Research Dissolution of the Monasteries
