A butler is a domestic servant, one of the principal menservants, who is principally in charge of the household's wine and beer cellar (hence the name which derives from the French word meaning someone who bottles drinks) and plate. It is a common misunderstanding that a butler is in charge of the other servants, in reality this was the duty of the valet, however in the absence of a valet the role would be required of a butler. Primarily a butler is a wine consultant and brewer of beer. The notion of a butler opening the door to guests is quite incorrect, that duty was traditionally conducted by a footman.
The duties and role of the 19th century butler were helpfully described in 1860 by Mrs Beeton to those starting a household as:
The domestic duties of the butler are to bring in the eatables [food] at breakfast, and wait upon the family at that meal, assisted by the footman, and see to the cleanliness of everything at table. On taking away, he removes the tray with the china and plate [silver plated metal articles], for which he is responsible. At luncheon, he arranges the meal, and waits unassisted, the footman now being engaged in other duties. At dinner, he places the silver and plated articles on the table, sees that everything is in its place, and rectifies what is wrong. He carries in the first dish, and announces in the drawing-room that dinner is on the table, and respectfully stands by the door until the company are seated, when he takes his place behind his master's chair on the left, to remove the covers, handing them to the other attendants to carry out. After the first course of plates is supplied, his place is at the sideboard to serve the wines, but only when called on.
The first course ended, he rings the cook's bell, and hands the dishes from the table to the other servants to carry away, receiving from them the second course, which he places on the table, removing the covers as before, and again taking his place at the sideboard.
At dessert, the slips being removed, the butler receives the dessert from the other servants, and arranges it on the table, with plates and glasses, and then takes his place behind his master's chair to hand the wines and ices, while the footman stands behind his mistress for the same purpose, the other attendants leaving the room. Where the old-fashioned practice of having the dessert on the polished table, without any cloth, is still adhered to, the butler should rub off any marks made by the hot dishes before arranging the dessert.
Before dinner, he has satisfied himself that the lamps, candles, or gas-burners are in perfect order, if not lighted, which will usually be the case. Having served every one with their share of the dessert, put the fires in order (when they are used), and seen the lights are all right, at a signal from his master, he and the footman leave the room.
He now proceeds to the drawing room, arranges the fireplace, and sees to the lights; he then returns to the pantry, prepared to answer the bell, and attend to the company, while the footman is clearing away and cleaning the plate and glasses.
At tea he again attends. At bedtime he appears with the candles; he locks up the plate, secures doors and windows, and sees that all the fires are safe.
In addition to these duties, the butler, where only one footman is kept, will be requires to perform some of the duties of the valet, to pay bills, and superintend the other servants. But the real duties of the butler are in the wine-cellar; there he should be competent and advise his master as to the price and quality of the wine to be laid in; "fine," [refine] bottle, cork and seal it, and place it in the binns [wine racks]. Brewing, racking and bottling malt liquors [beers, ales, stouts and the like], belong to his office, as well as their distribution. These and other drinkables are brought from the cellar every day by his own hands, except when an under-butler is kept; and a careful entry of every bottle used, entered in the cellar-book; so that the book should always show the contents of the cellar. Research Butler
A dirt-closet is a form of toilet in which rather than the waste being flushed away to a sewage treatment plant, as happens in a water-closet, the waste is collected in a bucket and then dry earth is poured over the top. The dry earth quickly absorbs the moisture from the waste, preventing it from smelling, and also enables appropriate bacteria to quickly establish themselves and biodegrade the waste into safe matter. The dirt from a dirt-closet may be reused up to five times, and then forms an excellent fertiliser for plants. The domestic dirt-close was popular during the 19th century, until the water-closet gained in popularity. Dirt-closets are environmentally friendly, cheap to operate and produce a useful by-product. Unfortunately they require maintenance, as the bucket in which the waste and dirt collects has to be emptied, and the hopper for the dirt filled. Research Dirt-Closet
Diving is the art or act of descending into water to considerable depths, and remaining there for a time. The uses of diving are important, particularly in fishing for pearls, corals, sponges, examining the foundations of bridges, recovering valuables from sunken ships, and the like. Without the aid of artificial appliances a skilful diver may remain under water for two, or even three minutes and rarely longer. Various methods have been proposed and engines contrived to render diving more safe and easy. The great object in all these is to furnish the diver with fresh air, without which he must either make but a short stay under water or perish. Research Diving
A governess cart was a low-hung, small, two-wheeled, one-horse carriage carrying four passengers on two inward-facing seats with a door at the rear. The governess cart was usually drawn by a pony or quiet cob and while uncomfortable, was a safe mode of transport and derived its name from its use in conveying children. Research Governess Cart
An 'inn' has been defined as 'a house the owner of which holds out that he will receive all travellers and sojourners who are willing to pay a price adequate to the sort of accommodation provided.' Generally a hotel is an inn. The alehouse, or tavern, is merely a refreshment house, and a fully licensed public-house is not necessarily an inn. Neither is a boarding-house, for the proprietor of the latter makes what arrangements he, or she, pleases with the boarders. But the innkeeper is bound by law to receive and afford proper entertainment to every one who offers himself as a guest, if there be sufficient room and no good reason for refusal (disorderly character, infectious illness, etc.). By the Innkeepers' Liability Act of 1833 no innkeeper was liable to make good loss or injury to goods or property brought to the inn by a guest (except for a horse or other live animal or any carriage) beyond 30 pounds, except where the loss was due to his wilful act or default or that of his servant, or where goods were expressly deposited with him for their safe custody. An innkeeper was bound to undertake custody of such goods when requested to do so. Research Inn
A taper is a slender waxcandle. The term is often used for a long wax coated or wooden wick used to light candles or fires at a safe distance. Research Taper
The Underground Railroad was a secret and philanthropical organisation which existed in the USA and Canada during the later years of slavery with the object of helping slaves escape bondage. Its chief centre was in Philadelphia. The Underground Railroad was a network of 'safe houses' and individuals who aided escaped slaves by providing them with food, shelter and money, to travel primarily to Canada where they automatically became freemen.
The Underground Railroad movement originated among the Quakers of Pennsylvania, and the system was gradually extended until a chain of stations was established a day's journey apart and leading from Kentucky and Virginia across Ohio, and from Maryland through Pennsylvania and New York to Canada. The stations were private houses, and the inmates were known to be pledged to the cause. The fugitives reached these stations after nightfall, were fed and clothed when it was necessary and given a night's rest. The sick were provided with a place in which to remain until they were restored to health.
Levi Coffin, a Quaker, and the reputed president of the organization, assisted in the escape of about 100 slaves annually for many years. He always had a carriage in readiness to convey the fugitives to a place of safety and organized sewing circles to provide clothing for the destitute. Harriet Tubman, a Black woman, who had escaped North, made nineteen journeys to the South and brought back bands of fugitives always without detection. The greatest secrecy was observed in all of the movements of the organization. The Underground Railroad was formally organized in 1838, but did not reach its perfection until the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law in 1850 aroused the Abolitionists to still greater exertions. Research Underground Railroad
Alexander III was King of Scotland from 1249 to 1286. He succeeded his father, Alexander II when just a boy of eight. In 1251 he married Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry III of England. Like his father, Alexander II, he was eager to bring the Hebrides under his sway, and this he was enabled to accomplish in a few years after the defeat of the Norse King Haco at Largs, in 1263. The mainland and islands of Scotland were now under one sovereign, though Orkney and Shetland still belonged to Norway. Alexander III was strenuous in asserting the independence both of the Scottish kingdom and the Scottish church against England. He died in 1285 by the falling of his horse while he was riding in the dark between Burntisland and Kinghorn. He left as his heiress Margaret, the Maiden of Norway, daughter of Eric of Norway, and of Alexander's daughter, Margaret. Under him Scotland enjoyed greater prosperity than for generations afterwards.
Alexander III was an Emperor (Tsar) of Russia. The son of Alexander II, he was born in 1845 and died in 1894 of kidney disease. He became heir to the throne on the death of his eldest brother, Nicholas in 1865, and succeeded in 1881, on the assassination of his father, being crowned in Moscow in 1883. He gave up the reforms begun by his father, and ruled in the old autocratic fashion, restricting the liberties of Finland and the Baltic Provinces, and encouraging persecution of the Jews. He spent much time in the closely-guarded castle of Gatchina, to be safe from Nihilistic attempts, several of which he narrowly escaped. 'He endeavoured to put down corruption and underhand dealing among the bureaucracy, and in his own habits gave an example of simplicity and economy. While showing himself suspicious of Germany and Austria-Hungary, he entered on friendly relations with France. He began to suffer from disease of the kidneys in 1893, and died at Livadia in 1894. Research Alexander III
Berenice was the wife of Ptolemy Euergetes. When her husband went to war in Syria she vowed that if he returned safe she would dedicate her hair to the gods. Upon his safe return she hung her hair in the temple of Venus, from where it disappeared and is said to have been used to form the constellationComa Berenices. Research Berenice
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Abbreviations
Research Butler
