Artesian Wells, so called from the French province of Artois, where they appear to have been first used on an extensive scale, are perpendicular borings into the ground through which water rises to the surface of the soil, producing a constant flow or stream, the ultimate sources of supply being higher than the mouth of the boring, and the water thus rising by the well-known law. They are generally sunk in valley plains and districts where the lower pervious strata are bent into basin-shaped curves.
The rain falling on the outcrops of these saturates the whole porous bed, so that when the bore reaches it the water by hydraulic pressure rushes up towards the level of the highest portion of the strata. The supply is sometimes so abundant as to be used extensively as a moving power, and in arid regions for fertilizing the ground, to which purpose artesian springs have been applied from a very remote period. Thus many artesian wells have been sunk in the Algerian Sahara which have proved an immense boon to the district.
The water of most of these is potable, but a few are a little saline, though not to such an extent as to influence vegetation. The hollows in which London and Paris lie are both perforated in many places by borings of this nature. At London they were first sunk only to the sand B B, but latterly into the chalk c o. One of the most celebrated artesian wells is that of Crenelle near Paris, 1798 feet deep, completed in 1841, after eight years' work. Artesian wells are now common in many countries, and have been sunk to the depth of a mile or more. As the temperature of water from great depths is invariably higher than that at the surface, artesian wells have been made to supply warm water for heating manufactories, greenhouses, hospitals, fish-ponds, etc. Petroleumwells are generally of the same technical description. Artesian wells were later made with larger diameters than formerly, and altogether their construction was rendered much more easy after the industrial revolution. Research Artesian Wells
The Brent Goose (Anser Brenta or Bernicla Brenta) is a wild goose, smaller than the common barnaclegoose and of much darker plumage. They are remarkable for their wing span and the extent of their migration. The Brent goose is a winter bird of passage in France, Germany, Holland, Great Britain, the United States, Canada, etc. It breeds in high northern latitudes; it feeds on drifting sea-weeds and saline plants, and is considered the most delicate for the table of all the goose tribe. Research Brent Goose
Albumin is one of the three main components of plasma. The other two proteins are globulins and fibrinogen. All three proteins are manufactured by the liver. These three proteins circulate in plasma and act as carriers for small molecules. Albumin, the most plentiful, is similar in texture to egg whites and gives blood its gummy texture. It is soluble in water and coagulable by heat. The globulins, three in number: alpha, beta, and gamma. They are divided on the basis of electrophoretic mobility. The globulins transport certain proteins. They number half the albumin proteins found in plasma. The globulin proteins are insoluble in water, soluble in saline solutions, and coagulable by heat. Globulins are also found in cerebrospinal fluid. Gamma globulins are the antibodies of the blood, giving immunity to disease. Only 3% of plasma is made up of fibrinogen. It is an important link in the chain of reactions that leads to blood clotting (coagulation). It uses the enzyme thrombin to form a web of fine protein fibres, called fibrin, that bindblood cells together, creating a bridge over which injured tissue can rebuild itself while blood continues to flow underneath. As an important factor to coagulation, it is often referred to as factorI. Research Albumin
There are several methods of controlling bleeding during surgical operations. 1. When an incision is made, much of the bleeding comes from the skin edges and from subcutaneous tissue: small towels are often used, clipped to the edges of the wound to protect the cut surface, and prevent the repeated rubbing away of clot which would otherwise occur. These are called variously 'side-towels','skin towels' or 'tetra towels'. The latter term arose as these towels are commonly attached with four- pronged forceps ('tetra forceps'). 2. By pressure. As the surgeon makes his incision, he or his assistant applies a gauze swab to the raw area. Capillary and most venous bleeding stops almost immediately, and does not re-start unless the surface is rubbed. 3. Pressure forceps (arteryforceps) are applied to the cut ends of arteries, as little of the surrounding tissue as possible being included in the jaws of the forceps.
These bleeding points are dealt with at some later stage in the operation in one of four ways. (i) The arteryforceps are simply removed. Bleeding does not recur as the crushed end of the vessel has sealed itself off. (ii) Surgical diathermy current is applied to the pressure forceps, thus coagulating the end of the blood vessel. (iii) A surgical ligature is tied round the tissue included in the forceps which are then removed. (iv) A stitch is inserted and tied round the tissue held in the forceps in order to secure more firmly the end of the cut vessel. 4. The surgical diathermy is used to make the incision through the muscle and deep tissue layers. This technique is used especially in the treatment of cancer and particularly in the removal of vascular structures such as the breast. Small blood vessels are thus sealed as the tissue is divided. 5. The application of gauze soaked in adrenaline solution. This drug constricts the ends of the vessels and is particularly useful in the nose.
Where extensive bleeding may be expected - such as in plastic operations on the face - the operation area is sometimes infiltrated with a saline solution of adrenaline. By the time the effect of the adrenaline has passed off, the divided vessels have become blocked by clots. 6. The application of hot packs. The combination of pressure and heat speeds the clotting process and the retraction of the cut ends of vessels. 7. Thromboplastin released by enzymes from damaged tissue is essential to start the clotting process. There is very little damage in a clean surgical incision and thromboplastin formation can be brought about by the surgeon taking a small piece of muscle, and pulping it by repeated crushing with pressure forceps. This ' muscle graft' is applied to the bleeding area. Purified thrombin is supplied in powder in sterile ampoules ready to mix with sterile water: the solution is then applied with a swab or a spray and is particularly useful under skin grafts where it acts as a kind of glue. Fibrin foam is another preparation used extensively in neurosurgery where even a small amount of bleeding into the brain or nerve, may do irreparable damage. Gelatin 'sponge' supplied in small biscuit-like strips, can be used in bleeding cavities or tied to the surface of a bleeding organ. The sponge acts as an artificial network in which clotting occurs and the substance is itself absorbed.
Oxycel (oxidised cellulose) acts in a similar way and promotes rapid clotting. It is used in such sites as the prostatic cavity and can be tied around the catheter which is left in place at the end of operation. Calciumalginate is a similar preparation and is manufactured from sea-weed. The raw oozing surface is moistened with one solution which is then activated by spraying with a second solution containing calcium. All these artificial coagulants are only of use for 'low pressure' bleeding - that is from capillaries or small veins. Research Surgical Haemostasis
Varicose Veins is a condition of permanently dilated veins. It occurs mainly in the lower limbs, the lowest part of the bowel (piles or haemorrhoids) or the spermatic cord (varicocele). The condition is caused by a hindrance of the flow of blood from the lower parts of the body to the heart, sometimes caused by a breadown of the valves.
The swollen veins can itch, ache, and bleed. They also cause leg cramps or swollen ankles and feet. Varicose veins may also lead to ulcers above the ankle and to blood clots in the legs that cause a condition known as phlebitis.
For many people, varicose veins do not cause any of these problems and are simply a cosmetic nuisance. The smaller veins close to the surface of the skin don't have valves, but they, too, can become swollen with blood. When this occurs, they appear as a dense, red, wavy network of so-called spider veins.
Although certain activities and habits add to the strain on the veins, researchers do not know what causes varicose or spider veins. It is widely believed it is a matter of heredity. About 25% of Americans have varicose veins on their legs. Only the superficial varicose veins can be seen. The deep veins, however, can develop the condition too.
The treatment for varicose veins ranges from simple exercise to a surgical procedure. Small spider veins and the ropy blue varicose veins are often treated with a procedure called sclerotherapy. The veins are injected with a strong irritating solution such as saline. The injection causes scarring that fuses the veins shut. Without blood circulating through them, they are no longer visible. Each vein needs to be injected individually. This procedure often needs to be repeated within a few years, as new varicose veins often develop. The most extreme technique for treating varicose veins provides permanent relief, but is not suitable for all patients. The procedure, called vein ligation and stripping, removes the superficial saphenous vein, which runs from the ankle to the groin. Research Varicose Veins
Barilla was the commercial name for the impure carbonate and sulphate of soda formerly imported from Spain and the Levant. It is the Spanish name of a plant (Salsola Soda), from the ashes of which and from those of others of the same genus the crude alkali was obtained. On the shores of the Mediterranean the seeds of the plants from which it was obtained were regularly sown near the sea, and these, when at a sufficient state of maturity, were pulled up, dried, and burned in bundles in ovens or in trenches. The ashes, while hot, were continually stirred with long poles, and the saline matter they contain formed, when cold, a solid mass, almost as hard as stone. To obtain the carbonate of soda it was only requisite to lixiviate the barilla in boiling water, and evaporate the solution. British barilla or kelp is a still more impure alkali formerly obtained from burning seaweeds. Research Barilla
Boric acid or boracic acid is a compound of boron, hydrogen and oxygen found naturally as a saline incrustation in some volcanic regions, is an ingredient in many minerals, and is contained in the steam which, along with sulphureous exhalations, issues from fissures in the soil in Tuscany.. It is also known as acidum boricum, it is widely used as an eyewash. The acid forms white, shining, scaly crystals, which on heating melt into a transparent mass, when cooled resembling glass. It dissolves in water, and has a slight acidtaste; it colours blue litmus purple, and the yellow colouring matter turmeric brown. The chief use of the acid is as a source of borax, the biborate of sodium. Research Boric acid
German silver also known as nickel silver or pack-fong is an alloy of copper, zinc and nickel. It was first made in Europe at Hildberghausen in Germany, but was invented by the Chinese long before. German silver is made in different proportions, amongst which the following may be mentioned. Spoons and forks were made from two parts copper, one nickel, and one zinc; knife and fork handles were typically made from 5 copper, 2 nickel, 2 zinc, a mixture closely resembling alloyed silver. The addition of lead produces an alloy which appears well fitted for casts, and for making candlesticks, etc. Iron or steel, on the other hand, makes the alloy whiter, harder, and more brittle. German silver is harder than silver, and takes a high polish. It melts at a red heat, the zinc being volatilized in the open air. It is attacked by the strong acids, but it is also affected by common organic acids, such as vinegar, and by some saline solutions. Research German Silver
Potassium bromide (bromide) is a white, crystalline, water-soluble powder. It has a bitter, salinetaste and is used in the manufacture of photographic papers and plates and as a sedative. Research Potassium Bromide
Abbreviations
Research Artesian Wells
