Anne Boleyn (Anne Bullen) was the second wife of Henry VIII. She was born in 1501 or 1507 and died in 1536. She was the eldest daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn and Elizabeth Howard, daughter of the Duke of Norfolk.
She attended Mary, sister of Henry, on her marriage with Louis XII., to France, as lady of honour, returning to England about 1522, and becoming lady of honour to Queen Catherine. The king, who soon grew passionately enamoured of her, without waiting for the official completion of his divorce from Catherine, married Anne in January, 1533, having previously created her Marchioness of Pembroke. When her pregnancy revealed the secret, Thomas Cranmer declared the first marriage void and the second valid, and Anne was crowned at Westminster with unparalleled splendour. On September the 7th, 1533, she gave birth to a baby girl who was to become Elizabeth I.
She was speedily, however, in turn supplanted by her own lady of honour, Jane Seymour. Suspicions of infidelity were alleged against her, and in 1536 the queen was brought before a jury of peers on a charge of treason and adultery. Smeaton, a musician, who was arrested with others, confessed that he had enjoyed her favours, and on May the 17th she was condemned to death. The clemency of Henry VIII went no further than the substitution of the scaffold for the stake, and she was beheaded on May the 19th, 1536. Whether she was guilty or not has never been decided; that she was exceedingly indiscreet is certain. Five hundred years later demands were made for her to be granted a royal pardon on the grounds that charges against her were obviously fabricated by the king who simply wanted to be rid of her. Research Anne Boleyn
Lady Arabella Stuart was an English princess. She was born in 1575 and died in 1615. She was the daughter of Charles Stuart, earl of Lennox, who was himself the grandson of Margaret, sister of Henry VIII. When Elizabeth I died, Arabella Stuart was next in line to the throne after James. Kept a prisoner at Hardwick, she was made the figurehead of a conspiracy in 1603. In 1610 she secretly married William Seymour, afterwards the duke of Somerset, and together with her husband was arrested by James I. Both she and her husband escaped, but Arabella Stuart was recaptured near Calais and in 1611 was imprisoned in the Tower of London where she died insane in 1615. Research Arabella Stuart
Sir Arthur Seymour Sullivan was an English composer. He was born in 1842 at London and died in 1900. He entered the Chapel Royal choir in 1854 and studied music at the Royal Academy of Music and at Leipzig between 1857 and 1861. He is best known as one half of the opera producing couple 'Gilbert and Sullivan', whose first joint work was the light opera 'Thespis' produced in 1871, and last work was 'Grand Duke' produced in 1896. Research Arthur Sullivan
Catherine Parr was the sixth and last wife of Henry VIII of England. She was born in 1512 and died in 1548. Before marrying Hnery VIII in 1543 she had been married twice before. Her attachment to the reformed religion brought her into some danger, but from this she was released by the king's death in 1547. After the death of the king she espoused the Lord-admiral Lord Thomas Seymour, uncle to Edward VI but the union was an unhappy one, and she died while giving birth in 1548. She was the author of a volume of Prayers or Meditations, and a tract and letters published posthumously. Research Catherine Parr
Charles Dickens was a 19th century English novelist whose powerful imagery brought to public attention the terrible conditions endured by the poor. He was born in 1812 at Landport, Portsmouth and died in 1870.
His father, John Dickens, was then in the employment of the Navy Pay Department, but subsequently became a newspaper reporter in London. Young Charles Dickens received a somewhat scanty education, was for a time a mere drudge in a blacking warehouse, and subsequently a clerk in an attorney's office. Having perfected himself in shorthand, however, he became a newspapercritic and reporter, was engaged on the Mirror of Parliament and the True Sun, and in 1835 on the Morning Chronicle. For some time previously he had been contributing humorous pieces to the Monthly Magazine; but at length, in 1835, appeared in the Morning Chronicle the first of that series of Sketches by Boz which brought Charles Dickens into fame. It was followed in quick succession by a pamphlet entitled Sunday under Three Heads, by Timothy Spark publsihed in 1836; the Tuggs of Barnsgate published in 1836; The Village Coquette, a comic opera published in 1836; and a farce called the Strange Gentleman published in 1836.
In the same year Chapman and Hall engaged the new writer to prepare the letterpress for a series of comic sketches on sporting subjects by Seymour, an artist who had already achieved fame, and suggested as a subject the adventures of an eccentric club. Seymourcommitted suicide soon after, and H K Browne joined Charles Dickens as illustrator, the result being the immortal Pickwick Papers.
The great characteristics of Charles Dickens' genius were now fully apparent, and his fame rose at once to the highest point it was possible for a writer of fiction to reach. A new class of characters, eccentric indeed, but vital representations of the humours and oddities of life, such as Mr. Pickwick, Sam Weller and his father, Mr. Winkle, and others, were made familiar to the public. Under the name of the Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club this work was published in two volumes in 1837.
In the same year Charles Dickens was engaged as editor of Bentley's Magazine, to which he contributed Oliver Twist, a work which opened up that vein of philanthropic pathos and indignant satire of institutions which became a distinguishing feature of his works. Before the completion of Oliver Twist, Nicholas Nickleby was begun, being issued complete in 1839. As the special object of Oliver Twist was to expose the conduct of workhouses, that of Nicholas Nickleby was to denounce the management of cheap boarding-schools.
Master Humphrey's Clock, issued in weekly numbers, contained among other matter two other leading tales, The Old Curiosity Shop, and Barnaby Rudge, the latter a historical tale, going back to the times of the Gordon riots. It was published complete in 1840-41. In 1841 Dickens visited America, and on his return he wrote American Notes for General Circulation published in 1842.
His next novel, Martin Chuzzlewit published in 1844, dwelt again on his American experiences. This work also added a number of typical figures - Mr. Pecksniff, Mark Tapley, Sarah Gamp, and others - to English literature. The series of Christmas Tales, in which a new element of his genius, the power of handling the wierd machinery of ghostly legend in subordination to his own peculiar humour, excited a new sensation of wonder and delight. These enumerated consecutively were: A Christmas Carol published in 1843, The Chimes published in 1844, The Cricket on the Hearth published in 1845), The Battle of Life published in 1846, The Haunted Man and the Ghost's Bargain published in 1847. The extraordinary popularity of these tales created for a time a new department in literature, that of the Sensational tale for the Christmas season.
In 1845 Charles Dickens went to Italy, and on his return the Daily News, started on the 1st of January, 1846, was intrusted to his editorial management; but, despite his early training, this was an occupation uncongenial to his mind, and in a few months the experiment was abandoned. His Pictures from Italy were published the same year. Next followed his novel of Dombey and Son published in 1848), and David Copperfield, a work which has a strong autobiographical element in it published in 1849-50.
In 1850 Charles Dickens became editor of the weekly serial Household Words, in which various original contributions from his own pen appeared. In 1853 his Bleak House came out. A Child's History of England, commenced in Household Words, was published in 1852-64. Hard Times appeared in Household Words, and was published in 1854. Little Dorrit, commenced in 1856, dealt with imprisonment for debt, the contrasts of character developed by wealth and poverty, and executive imbecility, idealized in the Circumlocution Office. In 1859, in consequence of a disagreement with his publishers, All the Year Round superseded Household Words; and in the first number of this periodical, 28th May, was begun A Tale of Two Cities. Great Expectations followed in the same paper, on the 1st of December, 1860. Both were soon. republished, and are generally considered as the poorest of Charles Dickens' works.
In All the Year Round also appeared a series of disconnected sketches, called the Uncommercial Traveller, published in 1868. Our Mutual Friend, completed in 1865, and published in the usual monthly numbers, with illustrations by Marcus Stone, was the last great serial work which Charles Dickens lived to finish. It contained some studies of characters of a breadth and depth unusual with Charles Dickens, and is distinguished among his works by its elaborate plot. The first number of his last work, The Mystery of Edwin Drood, was issued on the 1st of April, 1870, and only three numbers had appeared when he died somewhat suddenly, at his residence, Gad's Hill Place, near Rochester, on the 9th of June. He had considerably overtaxed his strength during his later years, more especially by his successive series of public readings from bis own works, one series being delivered in America in 1867-68. He was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Charles Dickens' work as a novelist is firmly based upon a wide and keen observation of men. It is true that most of his characters suffer from being created to exhibit little more than one trait or quality alone, and thus receive an air of grotesqueness and exaggeration which approaches caricature. But the single trait or quality which they embody is so truly conceived, and exhibited with such vitality and humour, as to place Charles Dickens, in spite of all that is grotesque and overstrained in his work, amongst the great artists. Research Charles Dickens
In 1547 Edward Seymour was made Duke Of Somerset but on his attainder in 1552, the title passed into abeyance, only to be restored in the person of his grandson, William Seymour, the husband of Lady Arabella Stuart, in 1660. He was succeeded by his grandson, William on whose death without heirs in 1671 it fell to John Seymour, the 2nd duke's youngest son. He too died without issue, and the dukedom devolved upon his cousin Francis who became the 5th duke in 1675. His brother, Charles, an important figure at the court of Anne and George I, became the 6th duke in 1678. Research Duke Of Somerset
Edward Seymour (duke of Somerset) was an English statesman. He was born in 1506 and died in 1552. A son of Sir John Seymour, his early years were passed at court where he was attendant upon Henry VIII and Wolsey. In 1536 he was made a viscount, and in 1537 earl of Hertford, his sister Jane, having just been married to the king. In charge of the forces sent to Scotland in 1544, he took Edinburgh, and he gained further military experience on the borders and in France. In 1547, on the accession of Edward VI, Edward Seymour was a member of the council of regency. Almost at once he was chosen protector and made duke of Somerset, and for two years he governed England. He gained the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh in 1547 and carried through a moderate reformation of the Church, and made an attempt to stop the enclosure of common lands. His policy and position, however, created enemies and foreign affairs started to go badly for England. This resulted in his fall secured by his rival the Duke of Northumberland who managed to have Edward Seymour tried and subsequently executed for treason in 1552. Research Edward Seymour
Edward VI was king of England from 1547 to 1553. He was born in 1537 at Hampton Court and died in 1553. He was the son of Henry VIII by Jane Seymour. Being only nine at his accession a council of regency was formed under his uncle the Earl of Hertford. Edward VI was intellectually precocious (fluent in Greek and Latin, he kept a full journal of his reign) but not physically robust. His short reign was dominated by nobles using the Regency to strengthen their own positions. The King's Council, previously dominated by Henry, succumbed to existing factionalism. On Henry's death, Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford and soon to be Duke of Somerset, the new King's eldest uncle, became Protector. Edward Seymour was an able soldier; he led a punitive expedition against the Scots, for their failure to fulfil their promise to betroth Mary, Queen of Scots to Edward, which led to Edward Seymour's victory at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh in 1547 - although he failed to follow this up with satisfactory peace terms.
During Edward VI's reign, the Church of England became more explicitly Protestant - Edward VI himself was fiercely Protestant. The Book of Common Prayer was introduced in 1549, aspects of Roman Catholic practices (including statues and stained glass) were eradicated and the marriage of clergy allowed. The imposition of the Prayer Book (which replaced Latin services with English) led to rebellions in Cornwall and Devon.
Despite his military ability, Edward Seymour was too liberal to deal effectively with Kett's rebellion against land enclosures in Norfolk. Edward Seymour was left isolated in the Council and the Duke of Northumberland subsequently overthrew him in 1551. Edward Seymour was executed in 1552, an event which was briefly mentioned by Edward VI in his diary: 'Today, the Duke of Somerset had his head cut off on Tower Hill.'
Northumberland took greater trouble to charm and influence Edward VI; his powerful position as Lord President of the Council was based on his personal ascendancy over the King. However, the young King was ailing. Northumberland hurriedly married his son Lord Guilford Dudley to Lady Jane Grey, one of Henry VIII's great-nieces and a claimant to the throne. Edward VI accepted Lady Jane Grey as his heir and, on his death from tuberculosis in 1553, Lady Jane Grey assumed the throne. Research Edward VI
Elizabeth I was queen of England from 1558 to 1603. She was born in 1533 at Greenwich and died in 1603. Elizabeth I was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Almost immediately after her birth, Elizabeth was declared heiress to the crown. After her mother had been beheaded in 1536, both Elizabeth and her sister Mary were declared bastards, and she was finally placed after Prince Edward and the Lady Mary in the order of succession.
On the accession of Edward VIElizabeth was committed to the care of the queen-dowager Catherine; and after the death of Catherine and beheadal of her consort Thomas Seymour she was closely watched at Hatfield,where she received a classical education under William Grindal and Roger Ascliam. At the death of Edward VIElizabeth vigorously supported the title of Mary against the pretensions of Lady Jane Grey, but continued throughout the whole reign an object of suspicion and surveillance. In self-defence she made every demonstration of zealous adherence to the Roman Catholic faith, but her inclinations were well known. On the 17th of November, 1558, Mary's reign came to a close, and Elizabeth was immediately recognized queen by parliament.
The accuracy of Elizabeth's judgment showed itself in her choice of advisers, Parker, a moderate divine (Archbishop of Canterbury 1559), aiding her in ecclesiastical policy; while William Cecil, LordBurleigh, assisted her in foreign affairs. The first great object of her reign was the settlement of religion, to effect which a parliament was called on the 25th of January, and dissolved on the 8th of May, its object having been accomplished - the return of England to Protestantism, the royal supremacy asserted, and the revised prayer-book enforced by the Act of Uniformity. Freed from the tyranny of Mary's reign the Puritans began to claim predominance for their own dogmas, while the supporters of the Established Church were unwilling to grant them even liberty of worship. The Puritans, therefore, like the Catholics, were made irreconcilable enemies of the existing order, and increasingly stringent measures were adopted agsinst them. But the struggle against the Catholics was the most severe, chiefly because they were supported by foreign powers; so that while their religion was wholly prohibited, even exile was forbidden them, in order to prevent their intrigues abroad. Many Catholics, particularly priests, suffered death during this reign; but simple nonconformity, from whatever cause, was pursued with the severest penalties, and many more clergymen were driven out of the church by differences about the position of altars, the wearing of caps, and such like matters, than were forced to resign by the change from Rome to Reformation.
Elizabeth's first parliament approached her on a subject which, next to religion, was the chief trouble of her reign, the succession to the crown. They requested her to marry, but she declared her intention to live and die a virgin; and she consistently declined in the course of her life such suitors as the Duc d'Alencon, Prince Erik of Sweden, the Archduke Charles of Austria, and Philip of Spain. While, however, she felt that she could best maintain her power by remaining unmarried, she knew how to temporize with suitors for political ends, and showed the greatest jealousy of all pretenders to the English succession.
With the unfortunate Mary, queen of Scots, were connected many of the political events of Elizabeth's reign. On her accession the country was at war with France. Peace was easily concluded in 1559; but the assumption by Francis and Mary of the royal arms and titles of England led to an immediate interference on the part of Elizabeth in the affairs of Scotland. She entered into a league with the Lords of the Congregation, or leaders of the Reformed party; and throughout her reign this party was frequently serviceable in furthering her policy. She also gave early support to the Huguenot party in France, and to the Protestants in the Netherlands, so that throughout Europe she was looked on as the head of the Protestant party. This policy roused the inplacable resentment of Philip, who strove in turn to excite the Catholics against her both in her own dominions and in Scotland.
Mary, Queen of Scots, threatened by rebellion in Scotland, fled to England only to be mprisoned by Elizabeth I in 1567 and this led to a series of conspiracies, beginning with that under the Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland, and ending with the plot of Babington, which finally determined Elizabeth to make away with her captive. The execution of Queen Mary in 1587, though it has stained her name to posterity, tended to confirm her power among her contemporaries and led to outright war with Spain. In 1588 Philip of Spain's invasion fleet, the ' Armada', was defeated. There were two further Armadas in the 1590s, and an Irish revolt in 1595, assisted by Spain, which was eventually put down in 1601. The financial strains caused by the war against Spain (made worse by poor harvests) meant that Elizabeth did not try to put the Crown on a permanently solvent basis. In addition to sharp debates over revenue-raising measures such as monopolies, Parliament continued its pressure on the Queen to deal with the question of the succession.
During her reign the splendour of her government at home and abroad was sustained by such men as Burleigh, Bacon, Walsingham, and Throgmorton; but she had personal favourites of less merit who were often more brilliantly rewarded. Chief of these were Dudley, whom she created Earl of Leicester, and whom she was disposed to marry, and Essex, whose violent passions brought about his ruin. He was beheaded in 1601, but Elizabeth never forgave herself his death. Her own health soon after gave way and she died on the 24th of March, 1603, naming James VI of Scotland as her successor.
To Queen Elizabeth I may be traced the origins of the English colonisation of North America .In 1578 she granted to Sir Humphrey Gilbert letters patent to conquer and possess any heathen lands not already in the hands of Christians. Humphrey Gilbert's expedition failed, but in 1584 Elizabeth granted a similar charter to Walter Raleigh. In 1585, with the Queen's assistance, Walter Raleigh sent seven vessels and 100 colonists to settle in Virginia, which had been taken in the Queen's name under the charter of 1584 and named by Elizabeth. In 1603 Gosnold named one of the Elizabeth Islands for her. Research Elizabeth I
Sir Francis Seymour Haden was an English surgeon and etcher. He was born in 1818 at London and died in 1910. Educated at University College, he studied surgery at the Sorbonne, Paris and at Grenoble before settling in private practice in London. While in Paris he studied art at evening classes, but did not take up etching seriously until 1858 when he made the acquaintance of Whistler, whose step-sister he had married in 1847. In 1880 he founded the Society of Painter Etchers. In 1894 he was knighted. Research Francis Haden
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Anne Boleyn
