In agriculture, draining is a method of improving the soil by withdrawing the water from it by means of channels that are generally covered over. The successful practice of draining in a great measure depends on a proper knowledge of the superficial strata, of their situation, relative degrees of porosity, etc. Some strata allow water to pass through them, while others more impervious force it to run or filtrate along their surfaces until it reaches more level ground below. In general where the grounds are in a great measure flat and the soils of materials which retain the excess of moisture, they require artificial means of drainage to render them capable of yielding good crops whether of' grain or grass.
The wetness of land which makes it inferior for agricultural purposes, may appear not only as surface-water but as water which flows through the lower strata, and to draw off these there are the two distinct operations of surface-draining' and under-draining. The rudest form of open drains are the deep furrows lying between high-backed ridges, and meant to carry off the surplus water after the soil is completely saturated, but in doing so they generally carry off also much of the best of the soil and of the manure which has been spread upon it. The ordinary ditch is a common form of water-course useful in certain cases, as in hill pastures. But covered drains at a depth of one metre or so are the common forms in draining agricultural lands. They are generally either stone-drains or tile-drains. Stone-drains are either formed on the plan of open culverts of various forms, or of small stones in sufficient quantity to permit a free and speedyfiltration of the water through them. The box-drain, for instance, is formed of flat stones neatly arranged in the bottom of the trench, the whole forming an open tube.
In tile-drains, tiles or pipes of burnt clay are used for forming the conduits. They possess all the qualities which are required in the formation of drains, affording a free ingress to water, while they effectually exclude vermin, earth, and other injurious substances.
Drainage tiles and pipes have been made in a great variety of forms, the earliest of which, since the introduction of thorough draining, was the horse-shoe tile, so called from its shape. These should always rest on soles, or flats of burned clay. Pipe tiles, which combine the sole and cover in one piece, have been made of various shapes, but the best form appears to be the cylinder.
An important department of draining is the draining off of the waters which are the sources of springs. Sometimes the judicious application of a few simple drains, made to communicate with the watery layers, will often dry swamps of great extent, where large sums of money, expended in forming open drains in the swamp itself, would leave it but little improved.
In the laying out of drains the first point to be determined is the place of outfall, which should always afford a free and clear outlet to the drains, and must necessarily be at the lowest point of the land to be drained. The next point to be determined is the position of the minor drains; in the laying out of which the surface of each field must be regarded as being made up of one or more planes, as the case may be, for each of which the drains should be laid out separately. Level lines are to be set out a little below the upper edge of each of these planes, and the drains must then be made to cross these lines at right angles. By this means the drains will run in the line of the greatest slope, no matter how distorted the surface of the field may be. All the minor drains should be made to discharge into mains or submains, and not directly into an open ditch or water-course. As a general rule there should be a main to receive the waters of the minor drains from every 5 acres.
The advantages of drainage are obvious. In the first place it allows the soil to be brought into a more suitable condition for the growth of plants, aiding in producing the finely-divided and porous state by which the roots and rootlets can spread themselves at will in order to obtain the needed supplies of food, air, and moisture. It also allows the sun's rays to produce their full effect on the soil and plants without being robbed of great part of it by the stagnant water. Research Draining
A horse-shoe is a shoe for horses, consisting commonly of a narrow plate of iron or steel bent into a form somewhat resembling the letter U, so as to accommodate itself to the shape of the horse's foot. Horse-shoes do not appear to have been known to the ancients. Xenophon, Vegetius, and others mention various processes for hardening the hoofs so as to make them stronger, but say nothing of any protection like the horse-shoe. Iron horse-shoes are mentioned as being in use in Europe in the 9th century of our era. They seem to have been introduced into England by the Normans. Research Horse-Shoe
A stamp mill is a machine used for the fine crushing of mineral ore. The stamp mill consists of a cast iron rectangular box provided with a feed slot at the back and screens in the front. A number of stamps consisting of heavy stems with a steelshoe at the bottom work in each box. The stamps are raised by means of cams and falling by gravity crush the ore on the steel dies placed in the bottom of the box. Water flowing through the boxes carries the crushed ore through the screens. Research Stamp Mill
Balaeniceps is a genus of wading birds belonging to the Soudan, intermediate between the herons and storks, and characterized by an enormous bill, broad and swollen, giving the only known species (Balaeniceps rex), also called the shoe-bird, a peculiar appearance. It feeds on fishes, water-snakes, carrion, etc, and makes its nest in reeds or grass adjoining water. The bill is yellow, blotched with dark brown, the general colour of the plumage dusky grey, the head, neck, and breast slaty, the legs blackish. Research Balaeniceps
A bat is a nocturnal, wing-handed, flying mammals, having the forelimb peculiarly modified so as to serve for flight, and constituting the order Cheiroptera (Chiroptera). Bats are sub-divided into two groups; Megachiroptera (the megabats) and Microchiroptera (the microbats).
Bats are structurally not very different from typical mammals except for the extension of their finger bones to carry flight membranes, and their backward bending knees, though their conquest of the air is a marked difference. Echolocation in bats is associated with large ears and in some cases facial skin growths, and the ability to catch flying insects at night. This food source is seasonal, which, combined with their small size, has favoured the evolution of hibernation. Daily torpor, in which the body temperature drops to the ambient temperature is common among temperate bats, and is another energy-saving adaptation necessitated by small bodies engaged in such a high energy activity as flying. Short migrations to roosts of appropriate temperatures occur throughout the year. Mating begins in the autumn, and continues at intervals throughout hibernation. Sperm is stored and ovulation and fertilisation take place in the spring with a typical litter of just one young occurring. The parent shows a strong degree of attachment for her offspring, and when they are captured, will follow them, and even submit to captivity herself rather than forsake her charge.
Bats are common in temperate and warm regions. but are most numerous and largest in the tropics. All European bats are small, and have a mouse-like skin. The body of the largest British species, Vespertilio noctula, is less than that of a mouse, but its wings stretch about 38 cm. During the day it remains in caverns, in the crevices of ruins, hollow trees, and such-like lurking-places, and flits out at evening in search of food, which consists of insects.
Several species of the same genus are common in North America, Many bats are remarkable for having a singular nasal cutaneous appendage, bearing in some cases, a fancied resemblance to a horse-shoe. Two of these horse-shoebats occur in Britain. Bats may be conveniently divided into two sections - the insectivorous or carnivorous, comprising all European and most African and American species; and the fruit-eating, belonging to tropical Asia and Australia, with several African forms. An Australian fruit-eating bat (Pteropus edulis) commonly known as the kalong or flying-fox, is the largest of all the bats; it does much mischief in orchards. At least two species of South American bats are known to suck the blood of other mammals, and thence are called 'vampire-bats' (though this name has also been given to a species not guilty of this habit). The best known is the Desmodus Rufus of Brazil, Chilli, etc. Research Bat
Grallae is the Waders order of birds. They are characterized by a long leg and tarsus, the lower portion of the leg generally devoid of feathers. The bill is long or moderate. They have three or four toes, more or less connected by a membrane at the base, sometimes lobated. The Grallae are adapted by structure for feeding in marshes, on the muddy or sandy sea-shoe, or on the banks of rivers and lakes. Some species feed on fish, and they have unusually long legs and powerful bills. The majority have great power of flight and lay their eggs on the ground. Research Grallae
The Shoe-bill (or Whale-headed stork) is a large heron-like bird with a very large, broad bill the upper part of which ends in a prominent hook. It is a rare bird found only in the marshes of the White Nile and its tributaries. Research Shoe-bill
Andrew Jackson was the seventh president of the USA. He was born in 1767 and died in 1845. He began his military career at the early age of thirteen at the Battle of Hanging Rock; occupations of a miscellaneous nature followed, and in 1788 he was public prosecutor in the western district of North Carolina, now Tennessee. He was in 1796-1797 the first Congressman from the State of Tennessee, and in 1797-1798 was US Senator. From 1798 to 1804 he was a Judge of the State Supreme Court. His life as a planter, not infrequently chequered with disputes and duels, was broken by the War of 1812. Jackson, 'Old Hickory', as he was called, commanded the Southwestern troops against the Creeks, whom he overwhelmed at the Horse-Shoe Bend of the Tallapoosa, on March the 27th, 1814. He was made a major-general, stormed Pensacola, and held New Orleans against Pakenham's invasion. The sweeping victory, on January the 8th, 1815, of his riflemen over the flower of the Peninsular army, made Jackson for all time an American hero of the country in general and of the Democratic party in particular. General Jackson's actions in Florida, the capture of St. Marks in 1818, and summary execution of two British subjects, led to considerable discussion.
He was appointed Governor of Florida in 1821, and became US Senator in 1823. In 1824 he received ninety-nine electoral votes for President, but was beaten in the House of Representatives. Elected in 1828 over the President, he entered office in 1829, the first Representative of the new West and of the masses. In his Cabinet, outside of Van Buren, there were few names of note; Jackson's real advisers were a coterie of practical politicians, Lewis, Amos Kendall and others of the so-called 'Kitchen Cabinet'. In 1831 he reorganized his Cabinet, and the next year was re-elected over Clay. The chief features of his eight years, 1829-1837, were his vigorous opposition to nullification and to the United States Bank, his censure by the Senate, his introduction of the " Spoils System," his settlement of the French spoliation dispute, and his 'Specie Circular' of 1836. After his retirement he continued to be regarded as the leader of the party, and died at the 'Hermitage', near Nashville. Jackson was of heroic character, but headstrong, arbitrary, vindictive and subject to the influence of politicians. Research Andrew Jackson
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Draining
