Aristocracy (from the Greek meaning best rule) is a form of government in which the sovereign power is vested in a small number of citizens who are theoretically the best qualified to rule, as opposed to monarchy, in which the supreme authority is vested in one person, and to democracy, in which the ultimate authority is exercised by the entire body of citizens or their representatives. In an aristocracy, although the power of government is wielded by a few, theoretically the administration of government is carried on for the welfare of the many. Whenever the interests of the people as a whole are made subservient to the selfish interests of the rulers, aristocracy becomes a form of government known as oligarchy. Athens, before the period of the Persian wars of the 5th century BC, and Sparta, during practically its entirehistory, were aristocracies. The same was true of Rome during the period of the Republic, lasting from the 6th to the 1st century BC.
During the Middle Ages no true aristocracy existed, for although political power reposed in the hands of a few, each feudallord was sole master in his own domain. In England, the government from the accession of the house of Hanover in 1714 through the 19th century, although parliamentary in form, was in fact an aristocracy, since king and Parliament alike were under the control of a few great Whig families. Research Aristocracy
Agesilaus was a king of Sparta. He was born in 442 BC and died about 360 BC. He was elevated to the throne after the death of his brother Agis II. He acquired renown By his exploits against the Persians, Thebans, and Athenians. Though a vigorous ruler, and almost adored by his soldiers, he was of small stature and lame from his birth. Xenophon, Plutarch, and Cornelius Nepos are among his biographers. Research Agesilaus
Agis IV was a king of Sparta. He succeeded to the throne in 244 BC, and reigned for four years. He attempted a reform of the abuses which had crept into the state - his plan comprehending a redistribution of the land, a division of wealth, and the cancelling of all debts. Opposed by his colleague Leonidas, advantage was taken of his absence in an expedition against the Aetolians, to depose him. Agis at first took sanctuary in a temple, but he was entrapped and hurriedly executed by his rival. Research Agis IV
Alcibiades was an Athenian general and statesman. He was born in 450 BC and died in 404 BC.
An Athenian of high family and of great abilities, but of no principle, he was the son of Cleinias, and a relative of Pericles, who also was his guardian. In youth he was remarkable for the beauty of his person, no less than for the dissoluteness of his manners. He came under the influence of Socrates, but little permanent effect was produced on his character by the precepts of the sage. He acquired great popularity by his liberality in providing for the amusements of the people, and after the death of Cleon attained a political ascendancy which left him no rival but Nicias. Thus he played an important part in the long-continued Peloponnesian war.
In 415 he advocated the expedition against Sicily, and was chosen one of the leaders, but before the expedition sailed he was charged with profaning and divulging the Eleusinian mysteries, and mutilating the busts of Hermes, which were set up in public all through Athens. Rather than stand his trial he went over to Sparta, divulged the plans of the Athenians, and assisted the Spartans to defeat them. Sentence of death and confiscation was pronounced against him at Athens, and he was cursed by the ministers of religion. He soon left Sparta and took refuge with the Persian satrap Tissaphernes, ingratiating himself by his affectation of Persian manners, as he had previously done at Sparta by a similar affectation of Spartan simplicity.
He now began to intrigue for his return to Athens, offering to bring Tissaphernes over to the Athenian alliance, and latterly he was recalled and his banishment cancelled. He, however, remained abroad for some years in command of the Athenian forces, gained several victories, and took Chalcedon and Byzantium. In 407 BC he returned to Athens, but in 406, the fleet which he commanded having suffered a severe defeat, he was deprived of his command. He once more went over to the Persians, taking refuge with the satrap Pharnabazus of Phrygia, and here he was assassinated in 404 BC.
*Alcuin
Alcuin (real name Ealhwine) was an English theologian and scholar. He was born in 755 and died in 804. He was the confidant, instructor, and adviser of Charles the Great (Charlemagne). . He was educated and latterly had the management of the school at York. Alcuin having gone to Rome, Charlemagne became acquainted with him at Parma, invited him in 782 to his court, and made use of his services in his endeavours to civilize his subjects. To secure the benefit of his instructions Charlemagne established at his court a school, called Schola Palatinci, or the Palace School. In the royal academy Alcuin was called Flaccus Albinus. Most of the schools in France were either founded or improved by him; thus he founded the school in the abbey of St Martin of Tours, in 796, after the plan of the school in York. Alcuin left the court in 801, and retired to the abbey of St Martin of Tours, but kept up a constant correspondence with Charles to his death in 804. He left works on theology, philosophy, rhetoric, also poems and letters, all of which have been published. Research Alcibiades
Alcman was the chief lyric poet of Sparta. A Lydian by birth, he flourished between 671 BC and 631 BC and wrote (in the Doric dialect) love songs, hymns, paeans, etc, of which only fragments remain. Research Alcman
Cleombrotus was king of Sparta from 380 to 371 BC. He carried on a war against the Thebans which in 371 BC the Thebans won a decisive victory at Leuctra and Cleombrotus was killed. Research Cleombrotus
Cleomenes III was king of Sparta.The last of the Heraclidae, he was king from 236 to 220 BC. He intended to reform Sparta and to restore the institutions of Lycurgus, and therefore put to death the Ephori, made a new division of lands, introduced again the old Spartan system of education, made his brother his colleague, and extended the franchise. He was defeated by the allied Macedonians and Achseans at the battle of Sellasia in 222 BC, and fled to Egypt, where he was supported by Ptolemy Euergetes, but was kept in confinement by the succeeding Ptolemy. He escaped and attempted to raise a revolt, but failing, committed suicide. Research Cleomenes III
Croesus was the last King of Lydia. He reigned from 560 BC until 546 BC, conquered Ionia extending the empire from the northern and western coasts of Asia Minor to the Halys on the east and MountTaurus on the south, including the Greek colonies of the mainland. and became an ally of Sparta. His riches, obtained chiefly from mines and the gold-dust of the river Pactolus, were greater than those of any king before him, so that his wealth became proverbial. Croesus joined with Nabonidus of Babylon to oppose Cyrus of Persia, but was overthrown by him at Sardis in 546 BC. The date of his death is unknown, but he survived his captor, and is referred to in the reign of Cambyses. Research Croesus
The Dorians were one of the four great branches of the Greek nation who migrated from Thessaly southwards, settling for a time in the mountainous district of Doris in Northern Greece and finally in Peloponnesus. Their migration to the latter was said to have taken place in 1104 BC; and as among their leaders were certain descendants of Hercules (or Heracles), it was known as the return of the Heraclidae. The Dorians ruled in Sparta with great renown as a strong and warlike people, though less cultivated than the other Greeks in arts and letters. Their laws were severe and rigid, as typified in the codes of the great Doric legislators Minos and Lycurgus. The Doric dialect was characterized by its broadness and hardness, yet on account of its venerable and antique style was often used in solemn odes and choruses. Research Dorians
The Ephor were five annually elected magistrates of Sparta. Originally they were judges, but they finally controlled the government, controlling foreign affairs and acting as mediators between the king and the people. Research Ephor
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Aristocracy
