Marcello Malpighi was an Italian anatomist. He was born in 1628 at Crevalcuore and died in 1694. He was professor of medicine at Pisa, Messina and Bologna, and was one of the first to apply the microscope in anatomical study, making important discoveries as to the structure of the kidneys, lungs, skin and spleen. He also carried out work on the anatomy of plants. Research Marcello Malpighi
In the literal sense, anatomy means simply a cutting up, but is now generally applied both to the art of dissecting or artificially separating the different parts of an organized body (vegetable or animal) with a view to discover their situation, structure, and economy; and to the science which treats of the internal structure of organized bodies. The branch which treats the structure of plants is called vegetable anatomy or phytotomy, and that which treats of the structure of animals animal anatomy or zootomy, a special branch of the latter being human anatomy or anthropotomy.
Comparative anatomy is the science which compares the anatomy of different classes or species of animals, as that of man with quadrupeds, or that of quadrupeds with fishes; while special anatomy treats the construction, form, and structure of parts in a single animal. The special anatomy of an animal may be studied from various standpoints: with relation to the succession of forms which it exhibits from its first stage to its adult form (developmental or embryotical anatomy), with reference to the general properties and structure of the tissues or textures (general anatomy, histology), with reference to the changes in structure of organs or parts produced by disease and congenital malformations (morbid or pathological anatomy), or with reference to the function, use, or purpose performed by the organs or parts (ideological or physiological anatomy).
According to the parts of the body described the different divisions of human anatomy receive different names; as, osteology, the description of the bones; myology, of the muscles; demology, of the ligaments and sinews; splanchnology, of the viscera or internal organs, in which are reckoned the lungs, stomach, and intestines, the liver, spleen, kidneys, bladder, pancreas, etc. Angiology describes the vessels through which the liquids in the body are conducted, including the blood-vessels, which are divided into arteries and veins, and the lymphatic vessels, some of which absorb matters from the bowels, while others are distributed through the whole body, collecting juices from the tissues and carrying them back into the blood. Neurology describes the system of the nerves and of the brain; dermatologytreats of the skin.
Among anatomical labours are particularly to be mentioned the making and preserving of anatomical preparations. Preparations of this sort can be preserved (1) by drying them and clearing away all muscular adhesions, etc, as is done with skeletons, the bones of which are sometimes washed with acids to give firmness and whiteness; (2) by putting them into liquids, as alcohol, spirits of turpentine, etc, as is done with the intestines and other soft parts of the body; (3) by injection, which is used with vessels, the course and distribution of which are to be made sensible and the shape of which is to be retained; (4) by tanning and covering with a suitable varnish, as the muscles.
Among the ancient writers or authorities on human anatomy may be mentioned Hippocrates the younger who lived between 460 and 377 BC, Aristotle who lived between 384 and 322 BC, Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria who lived about 300 BC Celsus who lived between 53 BC and 37 AD, and Galen of Pergamus who lived between 140 and 200, the most celebrated of all the ancient authorities on the science. From his time until the revival of learning in Europe in the fourteenth century anatomy was checked in its progress.
In 1315 Mondino, professor at Bologna, first publicly performed dissection, and published a System of Anatomy, which was a text-book in the schools of Italy for about 200 years. In the sixteenth century Fallopio of Padua, Eustachi of Venice, Yesalius of Brussels, Varoli of Bologna, and many others, enriched anatomy with new discoveries. In the seventeenth century Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood, Asellius discovered the manner in which the nutritious part of the food is conveyed into the circulation, while the lymphatic system was detected and described by the Dane T. Bartoline.
Until 1832 the law of Great Britain made very insufficient provision for enabling anatomists to obtain the necessary supply of subjects for dissection. An act of some years previously had, it is true , empowered a criminal court, when it saw fit, to give up to properly qualified persons the body of a murderer after execution for dissection. This, however, was far from supplying the deficiency, and many persons, tempted by the high prices offered for bodies by anatomists, resorted to the nefarious practice of digging up newly-buried corpses, and frequently, as in the case of the notorious Burke and Hare of Edinburgh, to murder. To remedy these evils a statute was passed in 1832, which made provision for the wants of surgeons, students, or other duly qualified persons, by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of the bodies of persons who die friendless in alms-houses, hospitals, etc. The act also appointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the anatomical schools, and required persons practising the operations to obtain a license. Relatives had a right under the law to effectually object to the anatomical examination of a body even though the deceased had expressed a desire for it.
Brucellosis (Malta fever, Undulant Fever, Mediterranean Fever) is an infectious disease of cattle, goats, and pigs, caused by bacteria of the genusBrucella and transmittable to man, usually being conveyed by infected goat's milk. The disease causes long-continued irregular fever, with headache, muscular pains, joint pains, arthritis, anaemia, constipation and swelling of the spleen. It is common in the coastal districts of the Mediterranean, but occasionally occurs in England and elsewhere. The incubation period is about fifteen days, or up to twenty days, and the established disease often persists for six months or up to two years. The patient becomes much weakened and depressed, but the mortality rate is low. Research Brucellosis
The celiac artery (celiac trunk) branches from the descending aorta near the opening in the diaphragm. It is a short thick branch of artery about an inch in length and divides into three branches, the gastric, hepatic, and splenic. It supplies the intestines, spleen, and liver. Research Celiac Artery
The digestive system is responsible for processing food, breaking it down into usable proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, fats, and other substances, and introducing these into the bloodstream so that they can be used by the body. The digestive, or alimentary, tract begins at the mouth, where the teeth and tongue begin the breakdown of food, aided by saliva secreted by the salivary glands. The chewed food, combined with saliva, is swallowed, carrying it in peristaltic waves down the esophagus to the stomach. In the stomach, the food combines with hydrochloric acid which further assists in breaking it down. When the food is thoroughly digested, the fluid remaining, called chyme, is passed through the pylorus sphincter to the small intestine and large intestines. Within the long, convoluted intestinal canals, the nutrients are absorbed from the chyme into the bloodstream, leaving the unusable residue. This residue passes through the colon (where most of the water is absorbed into the bloodstream) and into the rectum where it is stored
prior to excretion. This solid waste, called faeces, is compacted together and, upon excretion, passes through the analcanal and the anus. Along the way through the digestive tract, the pancreas, spleen, liver, and gall bladder secrete enzymes which aid in the digestive process. Research Digestive System
Dumdum fever (kala-azar) is a tropical fever common in north-east Africa and southern Asia, caused by the Leishmaniaparasite. The infection occurs chiefly in the bonemarrow and the lymphatic system. Symptoms include fever, anaemia and enlargment of the spleen and liver. The disease is often fatal if left untreated, but may be frequently successfully treated with compounds of antimony. Research Dumdum Fever
Gamma globulin is a mixture of proteins in plasma, the fluid portion of blood. It contains antibodies produced in the liver, spleen, bonemarrow, and lymphatic glands to protect the body from invading viruses or bacteria. Each disease antigen stimulates production of a specific antibody, which circulates in the blood for a period of time. Since the gamma globulin contains these antibodies, it is sometimes taken from patients who have recovered from chickenpox, hepatitis, and other infectious diseases and given to confer a rapid but short- term immunity on persons recently exposed to those diseases.
Persons who suffer from an unusual deficiency of gamma globulin known as agammaglobulinemia are deficient in antibodies and may require periodic infusions of gamma globulin to maintain protection. In 1969 scientists in England and at Rockefeller University determined the chemical structure of gamma globulin, an important advance in the knowledge of immunity. Research Gamma Globulin
Glandular fever (infectiousmononucleosis) is a mild infectious disease most commonly caused by the Epstein-Barr (EB) virus, one of the herpes viruses. As with any harmful infection, the body's immune system fights the EB virus infection by activating large numbers of lymphocytes.
Glandular fever occurs most often in young adults but also strikes children and older people. Direct contact between people-kissing, for example - can spread the disease. The chief symptoms include chills, fever, sore throat, and fatigue. The disease is called glandular fever because swelling occurs in the lymphatic glands, especially those in the neck. Symptoms may also include an enlarged spleen, inflamed mouth and gums, skin rash, jaundice, and an enlarged liver. Depending on the seriousness of the case, most doctors recommend mild to complete bed rest for a glandular fever patient. The disease is not fatal, and most patients recover within three to six weeks. Blood tests are used to diagnose glandular fever. In a test used widely for many years, a sample of the patient' s blood is mixed with sheep's blood. If the patient has the disease, the sheep's blood cells stick together. Newer, more sophisticated tests identify glandular fever by detecting specific antibodies believed to be formed in the blood to fight the EB virus. Research Glandular Fever
Hodgkin's disease (also known as lymphoadenoma and lymphogranulomatosis) is a malignant disease characterised by enlargement of the lymph nodes, spleen, and liver. Research Hodgkin's Disease
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Marcello Malpighi
