A cave, or cavern is an opening of some size in the solid crust of the earth beneath the surface. Caves are principally met with in limestone rocks, sometimes in sandstone and in volcanic rocks. Some of them have a very grand or picturesque appearance, such as Fingal's Cave in Staffordshire, others, such as the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, which incloses an extent of about 40 miles of subterranean windings, are celebrated for their great size and subterranean waters, others for their gorgeous stalactites and stalagmites; others are of interest to the geologist and archaeologist from the occurrence in them of osseous remains of animals no longer found in the same region, perhaps altogether extinct, or for the evidence their clay floors and rudely-sculptured walls, and the prehistoric implements and human bones found in them, offer of the presence of early man.
Caves in which the bones of extinct animals are found owe their origin, for the most part, to the action of rain-water on limestone rocks. The deposit contained in them usually consists of clay, sand, and gravel combined. In this are embedded the animal remains, and stones either angular or rounded. Some of the remains found in European caverns belong to animals now found only in the tropical or subtropical regions, and others are the remains of animals now living in more northerly areas; others, again, are the relics of extinct animals. Among the latter class of animals are the cave bear and lion, the mammoth and mastodon, species of rhinoceros, etc. Of others that have only migrated may be mentioned the reindeer, which is no longer found in Southern Europe; and the Hyoena crocuta, found in the Gibraltar caves, which now lives in South Africa. The ibex, the chamois, and a species of ground squirrel, are shown to have once lived in the Dordogne, but are now found only on the heights of the Alps and Pyrenees.
Thus it is evident that the geographical conditions of the country must have been very different from what they are now. Man's relation to these extinct animals, and his existence at the time these changes took place, are demonstrated by such discoveries as those of human bones and worked flints beneath layers of hyena droppings, as in Wokey's Hole, near Wells, England; mixed up indiscriminately, as in Kent's Hole, near Torquay, with bones of elephant, rhinoceros, hyena, etc; and by the fact that many bones of the extinct animals are split up, evidently for the sake of the marrow.
In the Dordogne and Savigne caves fragments of horn have been found bearing carved, or rather deeply scratched, outline figures of ibex, reindeer, and mammoth. Among the most remarkable bone-caves are those of Kirkdale, in Yorkshire; Kent's Hole, Wokey's Hole; of Franconia, in Bavaria; the banks of the Meuse, near Liege; and the south of France. Research Cave
Chinaware is a name given to porcelain (pottery made from kaolin), so called from China being the first country to supply it to Europeans. It is thought that the Chinese produced porcelain from ancient times, but it wasn't until around 500 AD that they perfected the art. Chinaware first came to Europe in the beginning of the 16th century and won immediate popularity for its beauty and novelty.
The European consumers thought it impossible to match the whiteness of Chinaware, until John Frederick of Saxony, an alchemist, discovered a means of producing a porcelain equal in whiteness to the Chinaware. This led to the establishment by the Government of a factory at Meissen which started to produce porcelain rivalling the Chinaware in beauty and quality.
In France also about the middle of the 18th century the celebrated factory at Sevres was set up and soon acquired a great renown. In England a porcfaiain work was established at Chelsea some years prior to 1745; it was made at Stratford-le-Bow about the same time, at Derby as early as 1750, at Worcester in 1751. About 1755 kaolin or porcelain clay was discovered in Cornwall, and this contributed greatly to improve the quality of English porcelain, which began to be largely manufactured in Staffordshire under the auspices of Josiah Spode and Thomas Minton.
Chinaware, when broken, presents a granular surface with a compact, dense, firm, hard, vitreous and durable texture. It is semi-transparent, with a covering of white glaze, clear, smooth, unaffected by all acids except hydroflouric acid, and able to withstand sudden changes of temperature. Research Chinaware
Souling was a former tradition in Staffordshire and Cheshire when the poor would, on All Souls' Day, go begging for cakes known as soul cakes. Research Souling
The Bull Terrier or Staffordshire Bull Terrier is a British breed of dog originating in the 1850s from crossing the bulldog with the terrier to produce a dog for dog-fighting, and comprising three varieties; the white, the coloured and the miniature. The standard or coloured variety stands about 40 cm tall. They are a loyal, but aggressive breed which make good guard dogs - if you don't mind burglars being savaged by your dog! Research Bull Terrier
Sir Edward Elgar was a British composer. He was born in 1857 at Broadheath, Worcestershire and died in 1934. Self-taught, for some time he acted as conductor of the Worcester Instrumental Society, and as organist at St. George's, Worcester, but when later he turned to composition he resigned both these positions. In 1892 he produced the Black Knight, and this was followed by several oratorios, cantatas, and other works, including The Light of Life, a short oratorio (Worcester Festival, 1896); King Olaf, a cantata (North Staffordshire Festival, 1896);' Imperial March (1897); Te Deum (Hereford Festival, 1897); Caractacus (Leeds Festival, 1898); and Orchestral Variations later known as 'Enigma Variations' in 1899, an orchestral work based on an unheard theme, which brought him worldwide acclaim. In 1900 his famous sacredcantata, The Dream of Gerontius, was produced at the Birmingham Festival (repeated at Dusseldorf in 1901 and at the Niederrheinische Musik Fest in 1902), and added immensely to his already considerable reputation. He went on to compose other works including 'Pomp and Circumstance', and in 1904 was knighted. Research Edward Elgar
George Anson was a British admiral. He was born in 1697 at Shugborough, Staffordshire and died in 1762. He entered the navy in 1712, became a captain in 1724 and in 1739 upon the outbreak of war with Spain was appointed to the command of a squadron of six ships detailed for operations in the Pacific Ocean. The expedition set off in 1740, but was ill-equipped and ill-manned and all but the flag ship, the Centurion, were lost or abandoned off Cape Horn, the Centurion alone returning by the Cape of Good Hope and arriving back in Portsmouth in 1744 with 500,000 pounds of Spanish treasure, thus circumnavigating the globe. Anson was created a rear-admiral in 1744 for his success against Spanish ships and in 1747 he defeated the French fleet off Cape Finisterre, in recognition of which he was made BaronAnson of Soberton. From 1751 until 1756 he was first lord of the Admiralty and again from 1757 until his death in 1762. Research George Anson
Henry Francois Cary was an English divine. He was born in 1772 and died in 1844. Educated at Oxford, in 1797 he received the Vicarage of Abbot's Bromley, Staffordshire. In 1805 appeared his translation of Dante in English blank-verse. He subsequently translated the Birds of Aristophanes and the Odes of Pindar. In 1826 he was appointed assistant librarian in the British Museum, and retired in 1837. Research Henry Cary
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