A newspaper is a publication reporting and commenting upon news. The first periodicals were published by the Romans., the first newspapers proper were produced in Venice by the government, published monthly during the war of 1563 against the Turks.
The first genuine newspaper established in the United States was the Boston News Letter founded at Boston in 1704 by Postmaster John Campbell, and continued until 1776. Previous to this there had been
issued at Boston three publications of one number each. Of these the first, called a Newspaper Extraordinary consisted wholly of extracts from a letter of Dr. Increase Mather, who was then in London endeavouring to obtain a new charter for Massachusetts. This letter was published by Samuel Green in 1689.
On September the 25th, 1690, appeared the first and only number of
Publick Occurrences Foreign and Domestic issued by Benjamin Harris. The authorities promptly seized and suppressed the paper as 'a pamphlet published contrary to law and containing reflections of a very high nature'. In 1697 B Green and J Allen republished a news letter, bearing no title, which had been issued in London the same year. It was printed on a single page, .and contained small news items from the continent. After the Boston News Letter there appeared in 1719 the Boston Gazette Andrew Bradford issuing the American Weekly Mercury at Philadelphia the same year. James Franklin established the New England Courant at Boston two years later. This was suppressed for its attacks upon the Government and clergy, but was revived by Benjamin Franklin. WilliamBradford began the Gazette at New York in 1725, and John Peter Zenger the New York Weekly Journal in 1733, in the cause of the people against the Colonial Government. Zenger's paper may be regarded as a prototype of the modern news journal. Newspapers were founded in the other American colonies in the following order: In Maryland, at Annapolis, in 1727; in South Carolina, at Charleston, in 1731; in Rhode Island, at Newport, in 1731; in Virginia, at Williamsburg, in 1736; in North Carolina, at New Berne, in 1755; in Connecticut, at New Haven, in 1755; in New Hampshire, at Portsmouth, in 1756; in Georgia, at Savannah, in 1763; in Vermont, at Westminster, in 1781.
Between 1704 and 1775 seventy-eight different newspapers had been printed with varied success in the American colonies. Of these, thirty-nine were in actual process of publication at the outbreak of the American War of Independence. The papers most influential in advancing the revolutionary cause were the Boston Gazette and the Massachusetts Spy, On the British occupation of Boston, New York and Philadelphia, most of the Whig journals were suspended. It has been estimated that the thirty-nine newspapers of 1775 circulated about 1,300,000 copies annually.
After the Federal Constitution was adopted in America the newspapers fell largely into the hands of English immigrants, men of versatility and talent. Violent partisan controversies arose. The most influential papers of this period were the Columbian Centinel, published at Boston during forty years, commencing in 1784, by Benjamin Russell; the New York Minerva, established at New York in 1793 by Noah Webster; the New York Evening Post, established as the central organ of the Federalists in 1801; the Philadelphia Aurora, founded by Benjamin Franklin Bache in 1790, and afterward edited with vindictive partisanship by William Duane, an Englishman; the Philadelphia National Gazette, established in 1791 by Philip Freneau; and the National Intelligencer, established at Washington by Samuel H Smith in 1800.
The first American penny paper was the New York Sun, established in 1833 by Benjamin Day. The first American Sunday paper was the Sunday Courier, appearing in New York in 1825, with but little success. The chief period of the political influence of editors in the United States was that beginning in 1830 and ending after the American Civil War. Before that date the editor was often of little account, but from 1830 to 1870 the paper was often known chiefly as the organ of the individual editor's opinions. Research Newspaper
Adrien Francois Boieldieu was a French composer. He was born in 1775 at Rouen and died in 1834 of pulmonary disease. He early displayed great musical talent, his first opera, La Famille Suisse, being well received in 1795 at Rouen. In 1795 he repaired to Paris, and rose rapidly in reputation, producing several operas, of which the best was Le Calife de Baghdad (1799). Domestic difficulties drove him in 1802 to Russia, where he became musical director to the emperor.
On his return to Paris in 1811 he produced, among other works, his two masterpieces, Jean de Paris (1812) and La Dame Blanche (1825), which place him in the first rank of composers of French comic opera. For some years he was professor of composition and the piano-forte at the Conservatoire. Research Adrien Boieldieu
Benvenuto Cellini was a Florentine goldsmith and sculptor. He was born in 1500 at Florence and died in 1571. The son of a maker of musical instruments, he was intended for the same profession as his father but from an early age showed artistic talent, especially in design and was apprenticed to a goldsmith. Although always a musician and eventually one of the Papal Band, his life was given to work as a sculptor and goldsmith. Research Benvenuto Cellini
Francois Marie Charles Fourier was a French socialist writer. He was born in 1772 at Besangon and died in 1837. He studied in the college of Besangon, and subsequently at Rouen and Lyons occupied subordinate situations in mercantile houses. At Lyons he entered into business on his own account, but lost all his money from the tumults of war and was forced to enlist in the revolutionary army. Discharged in 1795 on account of ill-health he returned to commerce, filling quite subordinate situations, until he died. He wrote his books in his leisure hours and published them out of his scant savings. His first book, Theorie des Quatre Mouvem cutset des Destinees Generales, was published in 1808; the Traite de 1'Association Domestique Agricole, his most important work, in 1822; but it was not until the last years of his life that they attracted any notice.
In his social system Fourier holds that the operations of industry should be carried on by Phalansteries, or associations of 1800 members combining their labour on a district of about a square league in extent, under the control of governors elected by each community. In the distribution a certain minimum is first assigned for the subsistence of every member of the society, whether capable or not of labour. The remainder of the produce is shared in certain proportions to be previously determined among the three elements, labour, capital, and talent. The capital of the community may be owned in unequal shares by different members, who would in that case receive, as in any other joint-stock concern, proportional dividends. The claim of each person on the share of the produce apportioned to talent is estimated by the grade which the individual occupies in the several groups of labourers to which he or she belongs, these grades being in every case conferred by the voice of his or her companions. The remuneration received would not of necessity be expended in common. Separate rooms or sets of rooms would be set aside for those who applied for them, no other system of living together being contemplated than such as would effect a saving of labour in building and the processes of domestic life, and reducing the enormous portion of the produce of industry at present carried off by middlemen and distributing traders to the narrowest possible margin. Research Charles Fourier
Charles Montage (Earl of Halifax) was an English poet and statesman. He was born in 1661 and died in 1715. He was educated at Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge. He first attracted notice by his verses, and in 1687 wrote in conjunction with Matthew Prior, The Town and Country Mouse. He entered the House of Commons as member for Maiden during the Convention Parliament, became a lord of the treasury in 1692, and chancellor of the exchequer in 1694. His administration was distinguished by the adoption of the funded debt system, and by the establishment of the Bank of England. In 1700 he was raised to the peerage as BaronHalifax, was twice impeached by the House of Commons, and remained out of office during the reign of Anne. Having taken an active part in securing the succession of the house of Brunswick, George I created him an earl, and bestowed on him the order of the Garter. He became first lord of the treasury in 1714. His character was a mixture of meanness and arrogance, but his taste in literature and the arts was good, and he had a great talent for finance. Research Charles Montague
Christina was Queen of Sweden. She was born in 1626 and died in 1689. The daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, after the death of Gustavus, at Lutzen, in 1632, the states-general appointed guardians to the Queen Christina, then but six years old. Her education was continued according to the plan of Gustavus Adolphus. She learned the ancient languages, history, geography, politics, and renounced the pleasures of her age in order to devote herself entirely to study.
In 1644 she took upon herself the government. A great talent for business, and great firmness of purpose, distinguished her first steps. She terminated the war with Denmark begun in 1644, and obtained several provinces by the treaty concluded at Bromsebro in 1645. Her subjects wished that she should choose a husband, but she manifested a constant aversion to marriage. During this time her patronage of learned men, artists, and the like, was lavish.
In 1650 she caused herself to be crowned with great pomp, and with the title of king. From that time a striking change in her conduct was perceptible. She neglected her ancient ministers, and listened to the advice of ambitious favourites. Intrigues and base passions succeeded to her former noble and useful views. The public treasure was squandered with extravagant profusion. In 1654 she abdicated in favour of her cousin Charles Gustavus, reserving to herself a certain income, entire independence, and full power over her suite and household. A few days after she left Sweden and went to Brussels, where she made a public entry and remained for some time. There she made a secret profession of the Catholic religion, which she afterwards publicly confirmed in Innsbruck. From Innsbruck she went to Rome, which she entered on horseback in the costume of an Amazon, with great pomp. When the Pope Alexander VII confirmed her she adopted the surname of Alessandra. For some time she resided at Paris, and incurred great odium by the execution of her Italian groom Monaldeschi for betrayal of confidence. Subsequent attempts which she made to resume the crown of Sweden failed, and she spent the rest of her life in artistic and other studies at Rome. She left an immense art collection and a large number of valuable manuscripts. Her writings were collected and published in 1752. Research Christina
Clement Francois Theodore Dubois was a French musical composer. He was born at Rosnay, Marne in 1837. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire under Ambroise Thomas and Benott. His cantata Atala gained for him the Grand Priz de Rome in 1861. He visited Rome, and on his return to Paris he became choirmaster of St. Clotilde, and later organist at the MadeleineChurch; was appointed professor of harmony at the conservatoire in 1871, and professor of composition in 1891; and in 1896 he succeeded Ambroise Thomas as director. His compositions, although not of the first rank, nevertheless stamp him as a musician of talent. In addition to his sacred and orchestral works, he composed the oratorios Les Sept Paroles du Christ in 1867, and Le Paradis Perdu, which gained the musical prize at Paris in 1878; the comic opera La Guzla de L'Emir in 1873, the ballet Farandole in 1883, the lyrical drama Aben-Hamed in 1884, and the dramatic idyll Xaviere in 1885. Research Clement Dubois
Giotto de Bondone (real name Ambrogiotto Bondonne) was an Italian painter and architect. He was born in 1267 and died in 1337. As a boy he tended cattle and sheep, but having been seen by Cimabue, as he was drawing figures of his sheep upon a piece of slate, that artist took him to Florence and taught him painting. His natural talent and gracefulness developed so rapidly that he soon surpassed all his contemporaries. He represented human figures with truth and nature, and surpassed all others in the dignity and pleasing arrangement of his figures, and a regard to the proportions and disposition of the drapery. His figures have more life and freedom than those of Cimabue, as he particularly avoided the stiff style. Among his most celebrated pieces is the Navicella (ship), at Rome (a picture of Peter Walking upon the Waves), some fresco paintings at Florence, also the history of St Francis, at Assisi, and several miniatures. He was equally successful as a statuary and architect. Research Giotto de Bondone
Henry Richard Vassal Fox, LordHolland, was an English Whig politician. He was born in 1773 and died in 1840. He succeeded to the peerage by the death of his father when less than one year old. In 1798 he took his place in the House of Lords, and as the nephew of Charles James Fox was at once acknowledged as a Whig leader, In 1806 he was commissioner for settling disputes with the United States; lord privy seal in 1806-1807; and chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. He and his wife made Holland House the resort of the wit, talent, and beauty of his day. He wrote a Life of Lope de Vega (published in 1806), Three Comedies from the Spanish (published in 1807), Foreign Reminiscences (published in 1850), and Memoirs of the Whig Party (published in 1852). Research Henry Fox
Quintus Horatius Flaccus, commonly known as Horace, was the greatest of Latin lyric poets. He was born in 65 BC near Venusia, in southern Italy and died in 8 BC. His father was a freedman, a collector of taxes, and had purchased the farm at which his son was born. When Horace was about twelve years old his father moved with him to Rome, where he received an excellent education. At the age of eighteen he went to Athens to complete his studies.
After the assassination of Julius Caesar, Brutus came to Athens, and Horace, along with other Roman youths, joined his army. He was appointed to a military tribuneship, was present at Philippi, and on the defeat of Brutus saved himself by flight. On the proclamation of an amnesty to the vanquished Horace returned to Italy, but found his father dead, his paternal estate confiscated, and himself reduced to poverty. He was, however, enabled to purchase a clerkship in the quaestor's office, which enabled him to subsist frugally and to cultivate his poetical talent.
His poems procured him the friendship of Virgil and Varius, and to them he was indebted for his first acquaintance with Maecenas, who was the friend and confidant of Augustus Caesar, and who expended his wealth for the encouragement of literature and the arts.
Maecenas received Horace among his intimate friends, and, after some years, presented him with a small estate or farm in the Sabine country about 15 miles from Tibur (Tivoli), which was sufficient to maintain him in ease and comfort during the rest of his life. He had also a cottage at Tibur, and at Rome or one or other of these country residences the latter part of his life was spent. Although he was ultimately introduced to Augustus he never sought favours from him, and he is said to have declined an offer of the management of his private correspondence.
His works consist of four books of odes; a book of epodes or short poems, two books of satires; and two books of epistles, one of which is often cited as a separate work, under the title of Ars Poetica. The lyrics of Horace are largely based on Greek models, but the exquisite beauty of his language is all his own. It is, however, in his satires and epistles that he shows the greatest power and originality, wit and humour, gravity and gaiety, shrewdness and common sense, tender sentiment, and at times melancholy. His writings have been often translated, and into many languages. In English Pope and Swift have given free imitations of various parts of his writings. The poetical translation of Francis is well known, but is inferior to that of Sir Theodore Martin.
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Newspaper
