An almanac is a calendar, in which are set down the rising and setting of the sun, the phases of the moon, the most remarkable positions and phenomena of the heavenly bodies, for every month and day of the year; also the several fasts and feasts to be observed in the church and state, etc, and often much miscellaneous information likely to be useful to the public.
The term is of Arabic origin, but the Arabs were not the first to use almanacs, which indeed existed from remote ages. In England they are known from the fourteenth century, there being several English almanacs of this century existing in manuscript form. They became generally used in Europe within a short time after the invention of printing; and they were very early remarkable, as some are still, for the mixture of truth and falsehood which they contained. Their effects in France were found so mischievous, from the pretended prophecies which they published, that an edict was promulgated by Henry III in 1579 forbidding any predictions to be inserted in them relating to civil affairs, whether those of the state or of private persons.
In the reign of James I of England letters-patent were granted to the two universities and the Stationers' Company for an exclusive right of printing almanacs, but in 1775 this monopoly was abolished. During the English Civil War, and thence onward, English almanacs were conspicuous for the unblushing boldness of their astrological predictions, and their determined perpetuation of popular errors. The most famous English almanac was Poor Robin's Almanac, which was published from 1663 to 1775.
Gradually, however, a better taste began to prevail, and in 1828 the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, by publishing the British Almanac, had the merit of taking the lead in the production of an unexceptionable almanac in Great Britain. The example thus set has been almost universally adopted. The circulation of almanacs continued to be much cramped by the very heavy duty of one shilling and threepence per copy until 1834, when this duty was abolished. About 200 new almanacs were started immediately on the repeal.
Almanacs, from their periodical character, and the frequency with which they are referred to, are now more and more used as vehicles for conveying statistical and other useful information, some being intended for the inhabitants of a particular country or district, others for a particular class or party. Some of the almanacs that are regularly published every year are extremely useful, and before the Internet and improved communications were almost indispensable to men engaged in official, mercantile, literary, and professional business. Such in Great Britain were Thorn's Official Directory of the United Kingdom, the British Almanac, Oliver and Boyd's Edinburgh Almanac, and Whitaker's Almanac, now so well known.
In the United States was published The American Almanac, a useful compilation. The Almanach de Gotha, which first appeared at Gotha in 1764, contained in small bulk a wonderful quantity of information regarding the reigning families and governments, the finances, commerce, population, etc, of the different states throughout the world. It was published both in a French and in a German edition. Almanacs that pretend to foretell the weather and occurrences of various kinds are still popular in Britain, France, and elsewhere.
The Nautical Almanack was an important work published annually by the British government, two or three years in advance, in which was contained much useful astronomical matter, more especially the distances of the moon from the sun, and from certain fixed stars, for every three hours of apparent time, adapted to the meridian of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. By comparing these with the distances carefully observed at sea the mariner could with comparative ease, infer his longitude to a degree of accuracy unattainable in the past by any other way, and sufficient in the past for most nautical purposes. This almanac was commenced in 1767 by Dr. Maskelyne, astronomer royal. The French Connaissance des Temps was published with the same views as the English Nautical Almanac, and nearly on the same plan. It commenced in 1679. Of a similar character was the Astronomisches Jahrbuch formerly published at Berlin. Research Almanac
Artificial flowers are imitations of real flowers, made of various materials. These are not a modern invention. The Romans excelled in the art of imitating flowers in wax, and in this branch of the art attained a high degree of perfection. The Egyptian artificial flowers were made of thin plates of horn stained in different colours, sometimes also of leaves of copper gilt or silvered over. In modern times the Italians were the first to acquire celebrity for the skill and taste they displayed in this manufacture, but they are now far surpassed by English and French manufacturers, but more especially by the latter. During the Victorian period cambric, muslin, satin, velvet, and other woven fabrics, feathers, india-rubber, blown glass, mother of pearl, brass, etc were all employed in making artificial flowers, later silk and plastic were more commonly used, and good results may be had from dyed wood. Research Artificial Flowers
Barbarian (from the Greek, barbaros), was a name given by the Greeks, and afterwards by the Romans, to every one who spoke an unintelligible language; and hence coming to connote the idea of rude, illiterate, uncivilized. This word, therefore, did not always convey the idea of something odious or savage; thus Plautus calls Naevius a barbarous poet, because he had not written in Greek; and Cicero terms illiterate persons without taste 'barbarians.' Research Barbarian
Bibliomania (literally 'book-madness'), is a passion for possessing curious books, which reached its highest development in France and England, though originating, like Tulipomania, in Holland, towards the close of the seventeenth century. The true bibliomanist is determined in the purchase of books, less by the value of their contents, than by certain accidental circumstances attending them, as that they belong to particular classes, are made of singular materials, or have something remarkable in their history. One of the most common forms of the passion is the desire to possess complete sets of works, as of the various editions of the Bible or of single classics; of the editions in usum Delphini and cum notis variorum; of the Italian classics printed by the Academy delta Orusca; of the works printed by the Elzevirs or by Aldus.
Scarce books, prohibited books, and books distinguished for remarkable errors or mutilations have also been eagerly sought for, together with those printed in the infancy of typography, called incunabula, first printed editions (editiones principes) and the like. Other works are valued for their miniatures and illuminated initial letters, or as being printed upon vellum, upon paper of uncommon Materials, upon various substitutes for paper, or upon coloured paper, in coloured inks, or in letters of gold or silver.
In high esteem among bibliomanists are works printed on large paper, with very wide margins, especially if uncut, also works printed from copper plates, editions-de-luxe, and limited issues generally. Bibliomania often extends to the binding. In France the bindings of Derome and Bozerian are most valued; in England those of Charles Lewis and Roger Payne. Many devices have been adopted to give a factitious value to bindings. Jeffery, a London bookseller, had Fox's History of King James II bound in fox-skin;
and books have been more than once bound in human skin. The edges of books are often ornamented with paintings, etc, and marginal decoration is frequently an element of considerable value. Another method of gratifying the bibliomanist taste is that of enriching works by the addition of engravings - illustrative of the text of the book - and of preparing only single copies. Research Bibliomania
Byzantine art is the symbolic system which was developed by the early Greek or Byzantine artists out of the Christian symbolism. Byzantine Art arose in South-eastern Europe after Constantine the Great had made Byzantium the capital of the Roman Empire in 330 AD and ornamented that city, which was called after him, with all the treasures of Grecian art.
One of the chief influences in Byzantine art was Christianity, and to a certain extent Byzantine art may be recognized as the endeavour to give expression to the new elements which Christianity had brought into the life of men. The tendency towards Oriental luxuriance and splendour of ornament now quite supplanted the simplicity of ancient taste. Richness of material and decoration was the aim of the artist rather than purity of conception. Yet the classical ideals of art, and in particular the traditions of technical processes and methods carried to Byzantium by the artists of the Western Empire, held their ground long enough, and produced work pure and powerful enough, to kindle the new artistic life which began in Italy with Cimabue and Giotto.
With regard to sculpture the statues no longer displayed the freedom and dignity of ancient art. The true proportion of parts, the correctness of the outlines, and in general
the severe beauty of the naked figure, or of simple drapery in Greek art, were neglected for extravagant costume and ornamentation and petty details. Yet in the best period of Byzantine art, from the 6th to the 11th century, there is considerable spiritual dignity in the general conception of the figures. But sculpture was of second-rate importance at Byzantium, the taste of those times inclining more to mosaic work with the costliness and brilliant colours of its stones.
The first germ of a Christian style of art was developed in the Byzantine pictures. The artists, who appear to have seldom employed the living model, and had nothing real and material before them, but were obliged to find, in their own imaginations, conceptions of the external appearance of sacred persons, such as the mother of Christ or the apostles, could give but feeble renderings of their ideas. As they cared but little for a faithful imitation of nature, but were
satisfied with repeating what was once acknowledged as successful, it is not strange that certain forms, approved by the taste of the time, should be made, by convention, and without regard to truth and beauty, general models of the human figure, and be transmitted as such to succeeding times. In this way the artists in the later periods did not even aim at accuracy of representation, but were contented with stiff general outlines, lavishing their labour on ornamental parts.
Byzantine architecture may be said to have assumed its distinctive features in the church of St Sophia built by Justinian in the 6th century, and still existing as the chief mosque in Constantinople. It is more especially the style associated with the Greek Church as distinguished from the Roman.
The leading forms of the Byzantine style are the round arch, the circle, and in particular the dome. The last is the most conspicuous and characteristic object in Byzantine buildings, and the free and full employment of it was arrived at when by the use of pendentives the architects were enabled to place it on a square apartment instead of a circular or polygonal. In this style of building incrustation, the incrustation of brick with more precious materials, was largely in use. It depended much on colour and surface ornament for its effect, and with this intent mosaics wrought on grounds of gold or of positive colour are profusely introduced, while coloured marbles. and stones of various kinds are greatly made use of. The capitals are of peculiar and original design, the most characteristic being square and tapering downwards, and they are very varied in their decorations.
Byzantine architecture may be divided into an older and a newer (or Neo-Byzantine) style. The most distinctive feature of the latter ia that the dome is raised on a perpendicular circular or polygonal piece of masonry (technically the drum) containing windows for lighting the interior, while in the older style the light was admitted by openings in the dome itself. The Cathedral of Athens is an example of the Neo-Byzantine style.
Coumarin is a vegetable proximate principle, obtained from the Dipterix odordta or Tonka bean, sweet woodruff, sweet-scented vernalgrass, melilot, etc. It has a pleasant aromatic odour, and a burning taste. It is used in perfumery, in medicine, and to give flavour to certain varieties of Swiss cheese. Research Coumarin
Drawing is the art of representing upon a flat surface the forms of objects, and their positions and relations to each other. The idea of nearness or distance is given by the aid of perspective, foreshortening, and gradation. The term drawing, in its strict sense, is only applicable to the representing of the forms of objects in outline, with the shading necessary to develop roundness or modelling. In art, however, the term has a wider significance. Highly-finished painting's in water-colour are called drawings, as are also sketches or studies in oils.
Drawing, in its restricted sense, may be divided into these kinds: (1) pen drawing; (2) chalk drawing, which may include lead-pencil drawing; (3) crayon drawing; (4) drawing shaded with the brush or hair-pencil; (5) architectural or mechanical drawing (technical drawing).
Pen drawings are often confined to pure outlines; an appearance of relief or projection being given by thickening or doubling the lines on the shadow side. Finished pen drawings have all the shading produced by combinations of lines. Chalk drawings (including lead-pencil drawings) are most suited for beginners, as errors can be easily corrected. Black, red, and white chalks are used. When the chalk is powdered and rubbed in with a stump, large masses and broad effects can be produced with much rapidity. A combination of hatching and stumping is generally preferable to adhering exclusively to either mode. Crayon drawings are those in which the true colours of the objects represented are more or less completely wrought out with different coloured crayons. Drawings shaded with the brush are outlined with the pencil or pen, the shading being laid on or washed in with the brush in tints of Indian ink, sepia, or colour. Architectural and mechanical drawings are those in which the proportions of a building, machine, etc, are accurately set out for the guidance of the constructor: objects are in general delineated by geometric or orthographic projection.
The great schools of painting differ from one another as much in their drawing as in their painting. In Italy the Roman school, through Raphael's fine sense for the beautiful and expressive in form, and through his study of the antique, became the true teacher of beautiful drawing. The Florentine school tried to surpass the Roman precisely in this particular, but it lost by exaggeration what it had gained by learning and a close study of anatomy. In the Lombard school a tender style of drawing is seen through harmonious colouring, and, in the Venetian school the drawing is often veiled in the richness of the colour. The Dutch school excels in a careful and minute style of naturalistic drawing, combined with great excellence in colouring. The French school in the time of Poussin was very accurate in its drawing; at a later period its style betrayed a great amount of mannerism. David introduced again a purer taste in drawing and a close study of the antique, and these are qualities which distinguish his school (the so-called classical school) from the romantic and eclectic schools of a later period. The drawing of the British school is naturalistic rather than academic. During the 19th century it improved greatly in accuracy and expressiveness. Research Drawing
Elocution is the art by which, in delivering a discourse before an audience, the speaker is enabled, with greatest ease and certainty, to render it effective and impressive. Formerly the value of an elocutionary training was considered very great, as well in sparing the voice as in overcoming what were considered natural defects or provincialisms in delivery, and in cultivating and developing the natural taste. Research Elocution
In agriculture, ensilage is a mode of storing green fodder, vegetables, etc, in receptacles called 'silos'. These are usually pits of quadrangular form, lined with wood, brick, concrete, or stone. The fodder, etc, is cut and mixed, placed in the silo, pressed down, and kept compressed by heavy weights placed on a movable wooden covering. It undergoes a slight fermentation, and attains a slightly acidtaste and smell, which is particularly grateful to cattle. The modern system of ensilage dates from about 1875, but the practice was known to the ancient Romans, and the system has been common in Mexico for centuries. Such advantages are claimed for it, as that in a wet season grass can be made into ensilage instead of hay, and that there is little loss of nutritive elements, while it has great feeding powers. Successful experiments have shown that green fodder may be converted into ensilage without a pit by simply piling up and consolidating by pressure. Research Ensilage
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Almanac
