Anti-Semitism, hostility to the Jews (Semites), has long been actively exhibited in severities and attacks of various kinds. A movement of the late 19th century manifested in various countries, especially Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Romania, and France. It may have been attributed to different motives in different countries, but on the whole owed its origin less to the fact of the Jews being a 'peculiar people' by race and religion, than to the comparatively high position won by them in the financial and political worlds.
In Western Russia there was a great outburst against the Jews in 1881, in which men, women, and children were slaughtered. The Russian government, by its anti-Jewish policy, may be said to have sanctioned this murderous outbreak, which was followed by harsh laws and actual persecutions, though afterwards there was a mitigation of the severity shown towards the Jews. Yet in 1903 the world was startled by a terrible massacre of Jews at Kishinef, in Bessarabia, connived at by the authorities on the spot; and towards the end of 1905, in connection with the Russian revolutionary movement, there were dreadful massacres of Jews in Odessa, Kishinef, and other towns, the authorities being similarly involved. In Russia, hatred of the Jews was party due to the position they occupied throughout the country as money-lenders.
In Rumania their position resembled what it was elsewhere in mediaeval times, and was less favourable than it was even under the Turks. In Germany, even before Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party the movement was worked chiefly by politicians for their own ends, though the racial and religious question also had some influence; and among the ignorant the .belief that the Jews murder Christian children for ritual purposes was revived, as also in Austria-Hungary. In Austria-Hungary the movement was partly political, partly social and economic, partly religious.
In France anti-Semitism was employed chiefly as a weapon by monarchists and clericals as against republicanism, and by the socialists as against capitalism, racial antipathy having also its influence in the movements. In Britain, anti-Semitism was much less severe, owing to there having been a very large influx of Jews from the Continent, forming part of Britian's immigration policy.
Anti-Semitism hit a climax in the 1930's with Adolf Hitler and the German Nazi Party with the wholesale slaughter of Jews throughout Europe, which provided an excuse for other world powers to oppose Germany's expansion through war - though economic reasons seem much more likely - and culminated in the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, subsequently named Israel, following the end of the Second World War. Research Anti-Semitism
The meeting of the Long Parliament (as it was afterwards called) in November 1640 ended the great days of the English monarchy, and sowed the seeds for the English Civil War. The Commons were determined on reform; they meant to put an end to the king's unconstitutional methods in both Church and State. Charles I himself, though he seldom faced facts, saw that some concessions would be necessary. But a real settlement was not achieved, chiefly because tempers were rising and the atmosphere soon became that of a revolution. Charles was partly to blame. He had no real desire for a lasting understanding with Parliament, and his shifty character aroused general distrust. But he found that the more he gave way to Parliament, the more it demanded. John Pym, a squire of Somerset, was the acknowledged leader of the Commons.
His enemies nicknamed him 'King Pym'. He was 'the first great popular organiser', for he used the press, the petition, and even the platform to support his cause. He now led the attack on the chief instruments of the late personal government. The judges who had upheld Charles's financial exactions in the Courts were arrested and imprisoned, and so was Archbishop Laud, who was beheaded in 1645. But the principal victim was Strafford. He was charged with having tried to 'subvert the fundamental laws and government of England and Ireland, and instead thereof to introduce an in March arbitrary and tyrannical government against law'. 1641 he was brought to Westminster Hall to be tried for high treason. But his accusers were at once faced with a difficult point. Strafford may have tried to 'subvert the laws'; but treason meant treason to the king, and had Strafford been a traitor to Charles? It was difficult to prove that he had, and as the trial proceeded it became clear that the verdict would be Not Guilty. But the Puritan majority in the House was determined that Strafford should die. Parliament therefore passed a special Bill of Attainder, condemning the minister to death without trial.
The Lords passed the Bill of Attainder, and it remained for the king to give or to withhold his consent. Some may think that it was Charles's duty to risk his life to defend Strafford. But the mob raged round Whitehall, howling for blood. Charles feared for the safety of the queen and his children, and he gave way. ' If my own person only were in danger', he told the Council, with tears in his eyes, 'I would gladly venture it to save Lord Strafford's life.' Three days later the earl was led to his execution in May 1641 in the presence of a crowd of 200000 people who had come to witness the end of 'Black Tom Tyrant'. No man ever died more bravely. 'I thank my God', he said, as he prepared to die, 'I am not afraid of death, but do as cheerfully put off my doublet at this time as ever I did when I went to bed.' The executioner offered to cover his eyes with a handkerchief. 'Thou shalt not bind my eyes.' said Strafford, 'for I will see it done.' And so he placed his head upon the block.
His misfortune, wrote Laud, was that 'he served a mild and gracious prince, who knew not how to be, or be made great'. That summerParliament was busy passing a number of Acts intended to make absolute government impossible for the future. One Act declared that the presentParliament could not be dissolved without its own consent; another - the Triennial Act - that in future Parliaments should be Called every three years. The three Courts by which the king and Laud had carried out their religious and financial measures were abolished - the Star Chamber, the Court of High Commission, and the Council of the North. Finally Ship-Money and other arbitrary forms of taxation were declared illegal. These abolitions of the year 1641 were the permanent, constructive work of the Puritan revolution; nor were the institutions then destroyed restored with the monarchy in 1660. Meanwhile another Bill had come up for discussion. A petition was presented to Parliament praying for the ending of episcopacy (that is, the rule of the Church by bishops) 'in all its roots and branches'.
The thorough-going Puritan members considered the petition, and a 'Root-and-Branch' Bill in 1641 was prepared, but it fell through. For now a new factor came into play. Hitherto a large majority, both of Lords and Commons, had been united in their opposition to the king. But this Bill divided parliamentarians for the first time. There were many who began to fear extremes; and a moderate party now sprang up. It was out of this debate on the Root-and- Branch Bill that the germs of the future Roundhead and Cavalier parties were formed. The extremists - the Roundheads - included Pym, Hampden, and Oliver Cromwell. The chief figures on the other side were LordFalkland and Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards the famous Earl of Clarendon, the future Chancellor and historian. Parliament adjourned for six months, but met again at the end of October. It had no sooner assembled than terrible news arrived from Ireland. Now that the stern hand of Strafford was withdrawn, the crushed Irish had risen against their lords. There was a sudden and horrible rebellion thousands of Protestants were massacred in cold blood. When this news was received in London it only served to increase the Puritanfury. Meanwhile the Commons drew up a Grand Remonstrance in November 1641, in which they recited the past acts of the king and his servants to which they objected - there were 201 items - and stated a programme for the future. Some of its clauses prayed the king to reduce the power of the bishops and to remove 'oppressions in religion'. Another clause asked His Majesty to employ ministers 'such as the Parliament may have cause to confide in' - which in later times solved the problem of disputes between king and Parliament.
All this shows that Parliament had considerably advanced its demands. During the months from November 1640 to September 1641 they, had succeeded in placing constitutional checks on the king's power. From November 1641 to August 1642 they were bent on seizing control of both Church and State, until they forced Charles to reply: ' If I granted your demands, I should be no more than the merephantom of a king.' The Grand Remonstrance was passed by a majority of only eleven - a fact which illustrates the growth of the anti-Puritan party.
The situation, at the end of 1641, was dangerous in the extreme. On the one hand the queen and the swaggering ' Cavaliers' of the Court were urging Charles to strike at King Pym and his fellow leaders before it was too late. On the other hand, London was a stronghold of Puritanism, and it was the London merchants who had felt the weight of Charles's taxation most heavily. The London ' prentices' and the king's swordsmen were itching to get at one another's throats. Never the less Pym proceeded steadily on his way. He was determined to deprive the king of the command of the militia; for it was obvious that if the Irish rebellion was to be crushed a militia must be called out. And once Charles had command of the national armed forces, would he not use them to crush Parliament and destroy English liberty for ever? Pym had no doubt that he would. A Militia Bill was therefore brought in, and - contrary to all English law and custom - it took the command of the military forces out of the king's hands. To this Charles of course refused his consent.
Early in January 1642 he took the queen's advice, and instructed the Attorney- General to impeach Pym, Hampden, and three other leading members of the Commons. The members were alarmed, but Charles promised them 'on the word of a king' that no violence should be done them. The next day - the 4th of January 1642 - he went down to the House with 400 swordsmen. He left his guard at the door, and walked in accompanied only by Prince Rupert, his German nephew. But the five members, warned of his intention, had fled by river. There was a dead silence as the king looked round. He asked the Speaker, Lenthall, where the missing members were. 'I have neither eyes to see', Lenthall replied, 'nor tongue to speak in this place, but as this House shall direct me.' There was another pause as Charles scanned the benches. 'I see', he said at last, 'all the birds are flown. I do expect you will send them to me as soon as they shall return hither.' Then, amid cries of 'Privilege, privilege', he walked out. By this revolutionary act the king had outlawed himself. All hope of reconciliation being now past, he determined to try the issue of war. He left his capital on the 10th of January, sent the queen out of the country, and took up his quarters at York. Parliament claimed the control of the militia and secured the command of the fleet. During the spring and summer of 1642 both sides were busy raising troops. The great strength of the Puritan cause was London. The city contained a tenth of the population of England - 500000 out of five million. The number of troops which London provided was more than sufficient to quell any Royalist opposition in the surrounding country. The London 'train-bands' therefore protected the Puritan leaders during the eight months that the king was gathering his army in the north - January to August 1642. And so the English Civil War started. Research Long Parliament
The Sons Of Temperance are a friendly society originally founded as an association for the promotion of temperance. The Sons Of Temperance were founded in 1842 at New York City with the objects of 'to shield its members from the evils of intemperance, to afford mutual assistance in times of sickness, provide a sum of money at the death of a member, to elevate character, to enlist workers in an earnest and noble endeavour to reclaim those who fell under the influence of strong drink, to save the young from the terrible power of the drink habit, and to assist in every way the suppression of the drink traffic.' Research Sons Of Temperance
The rack was an apparatus of torture employed by the Inquisition, varying somewhat in its construction in different countries, though its principle was the same in all. The rack stood about one metre from the ground and consisted of a stout wooden framework with sticks across it in the manner of a ladder. The victim was stretched upon this frame, his wrists and ankles being attached with strong cords to two rollers, one at each end of the rack. These rollers were operated by levers which moved in opposite directions to each other. When the victim was securely fastened on the rack, the questions to which answers were desired were put to him.
Failure to reply satisfactorily was the signal for the two executioners to commence operating the levers. The result was the stretching of the victim's limbs and body. If persisted in, this was bound to cause dislocation of the joints or to drag off the members. In some cases the limbs were stretched in much the same manner as on the rack but by means of ropes and pulleys attached to rings or staples in the walls. Occasionally the tortures of the rack were varied or increased by the use of cords in addition to the stretching mechanism. The arms and legs were bound to the sides of the rack with thin but strong cords. These cords were wound around each limb three times, and a stick was inserted in each. When all was ready for the torture to commence, the executioners twisted these sticks, thus gradually tightening the cords and causing them to cut into the flesh until the bones were reached, inflicting terrible wounds. Research Torture of the Rack
Uncle Tom's Cabin was a story by Mrs H. Beecher-Stowe published in portions in a newspaper in 1850 and then in a complete form in 1852. The story, based on the real-life events of Josiah Henson who recounted his tale to Mrs Beecher-Stowe, set forth the evils of slavery and was an enormous seller and contributed greatly to the abolition of slavery in Britain. The hero of the story, Uncle Tom, is a black slave noted for his fidelity, piety and hardwork who is sold and has to submit to terrible cruelty. Research Uncle Tom's Cabin
Barry Sheene was an English motorcycle racer. He was born in 1950 at London and died in 2003 of throatcancer. He was 500cc world champion in 1976 and 1977, riding for Suzuki, though he was perhaps best loved for his natural good looks, charm and survivability, enduring horrendous crashes during his career. In 1978 he was awarded the MBE . After suffering a terrible crash in 1982 (he smashed into a bike lying across the Silverstone track during a British Grand Prix practice) in which both his legs were rebuilt with metal pins and plates, he retired from motorcycle racing in 1984 and moved to Australia where he became a televisionstar - though he returned to win the Jester International Classic race on a Molnar FWDManx at Donnington park, England in July 2001. Research Barry Sheene
Charles Dickens was a 19th century English novelist whose powerful imagery brought to public attention the terrible conditions endured by the poor. He was born in 1812 at Landport, Portsmouth and died in 1870.
His father, John Dickens, was then in the employment of the Navy Pay Department, but subsequently became a newspaper reporter in London. Young Charles Dickens received a somewhat scanty education, was for a time a mere drudge in a blacking warehouse, and subsequently a clerk in an attorney's office. Having perfected himself in shorthand, however, he became a newspapercritic and reporter, was engaged on the Mirror of Parliament and the True Sun, and in 1835 on the Morning Chronicle. For some time previously he had been contributing humorous pieces to the Monthly Magazine; but at length, in 1835, appeared in the Morning Chronicle the first of that series of Sketches by Boz which brought Charles Dickens into fame. It was followed in quick succession by a pamphlet entitled Sunday under Three Heads, by Timothy Spark publsihed in 1836; the Tuggs of Barnsgate published in 1836; The Village Coquette, a comic opera published in 1836; and a farce called the Strange Gentleman published in 1836.
In the same year Chapman and Hall engaged the new writer to prepare the letterpress for a series of comic sketches on sporting subjects by Seymour, an artist who had already achieved fame, and suggested as a subject the adventures of an eccentric club. Seymourcommitted suicide soon after, and H K Browne joined Charles Dickens as illustrator, the result being the immortal Pickwick Papers.
The great characteristics of Charles Dickens' genius were now fully apparent, and his fame rose at once to the highest point it was possible for a writer of fiction to reach. A new class of characters, eccentric indeed, but vital representations of the humours and oddities of life, such as Mr. Pickwick, Sam Weller and his father, Mr. Winkle, and others, were made familiar to the public. Under the name of the Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club this work was published in two volumes in 1837.
In the same year Charles Dickens was engaged as editor of Bentley's Magazine, to which he contributed Oliver Twist, a work which opened up that vein of philanthropic pathos and indignant satire of institutions which became a distinguishing feature of his works. Before the completion of Oliver Twist, Nicholas Nickleby was begun, being issued complete in 1839. As the special object of Oliver Twist was to expose the conduct of workhouses, that of Nicholas Nickleby was to denounce the management of cheap boarding-schools.
Master Humphrey's Clock, issued in weekly numbers, contained among other matter two other leading tales, The Old Curiosity Shop, and Barnaby Rudge, the latter a historical tale, going back to the times of the Gordon riots. It was published complete in 1840-41. In 1841 Dickens visited America, and on his return he wrote American Notes for General Circulation published in 1842.
His next novel, Martin Chuzzlewit published in 1844, dwelt again on his American experiences. This work also added a number of typical figures - Mr. Pecksniff, Mark Tapley, Sarah Gamp, and others - to English literature. The series of Christmas Tales, in which a new element of his genius, the power of handling the wierd machinery of ghostly legend in subordination to his own peculiar humour, excited a new sensation of wonder and delight. These enumerated consecutively were: A Christmas Carol published in 1843, The Chimes published in 1844, The Cricket on the Hearth published in 1845), The Battle of Life published in 1846, The Haunted Man and the Ghost's Bargain published in 1847. The extraordinary popularity of these tales created for a time a new department in literature, that of the Sensational tale for the Christmas season.
In 1845 Charles Dickens went to Italy, and on his return the Daily News, started on the 1st of January, 1846, was intrusted to his editorial management; but, despite his early training, this was an occupation uncongenial to his mind, and in a few months the experiment was abandoned. His Pictures from Italy were published the same year. Next followed his novel of Dombey and Son published in 1848), and David Copperfield, a work which has a strong autobiographical element in it published in 1849-50.
In 1850 Charles Dickens became editor of the weekly serial Household Words, in which various original contributions from his own pen appeared. In 1853 his Bleak House came out. A Child's History of England, commenced in Household Words, was published in 1852-64. Hard Times appeared in Household Words, and was published in 1854. Little Dorrit, commenced in 1856, dealt with imprisonment for debt, the contrasts of character developed by wealth and poverty, and executive imbecility, idealized in the Circumlocution Office. In 1859, in consequence of a disagreement with his publishers, All the Year Round superseded Household Words; and in the first number of this periodical, 28th May, was begun A Tale of Two Cities. Great Expectations followed in the same paper, on the 1st of December, 1860. Both were soon. republished, and are generally considered as the poorest of Charles Dickens' works.
In All the Year Round also appeared a series of disconnected sketches, called the Uncommercial Traveller, published in 1868. Our Mutual Friend, completed in 1865, and published in the usual monthly numbers, with illustrations by Marcus Stone, was the last great serial work which Charles Dickens lived to finish. It contained some studies of characters of a breadth and depth unusual with Charles Dickens, and is distinguished among his works by its elaborate plot. The first number of his last work, The Mystery of Edwin Drood, was issued on the 1st of April, 1870, and only three numbers had appeared when he died somewhat suddenly, at his residence, Gad's Hill Place, near Rochester, on the 9th of June. He had considerably overtaxed his strength during his later years, more especially by his successive series of public readings from bis own works, one series being delivered in America in 1867-68. He was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Charles Dickens' work as a novelist is firmly based upon a wide and keen observation of men. It is true that most of his characters suffer from being created to exhibit little more than one trait or quality alone, and thus receive an air of grotesqueness and exaggeration which approaches caricature. But the single trait or quality which they embody is so truly conceived, and exhibited with such vitality and humour, as to place Charles Dickens, in spite of all that is grotesque and overstrained in his work, amongst the great artists. Research Charles Dickens
John Churchill (First Duke of Marlborough) was an English soldier. He was born in 1650 at Ashe and died in 1722. He served under Turenne in 1672 and distinguished himself at Nimeguen and Maestricht. In 1678 he married Sarah Jennings, a lady of the bedchamber of the PrincessAnne. John Churchill showed great skill and resource in serving the royal army at Sedgemoor in 1685. In 1688 he went over to the Prince of Orange, and was made Earl of Marlborough by William III.
In the war in Ireland, from 1689 to 1691, his capture of the two ports of Cork and Kinsale severed the communications of France. He made his mark also in the war in the Low Countries. But he was disliked by William and his Dutch favourites. This and a strong feeling of sympathy with his old master caused Marlborough to enter into plots with King James at Saint-Germain. Following the affair of Brest he was arrested, kept in the Tower in 1692 and was for a time disgraced. But when a rupture with France appeared impending, the king took him to Holland to negotiate for the Grand Alliance.
After the death of William in 1702, he was made, largely through the influence of his wife with the new queen Anne, captain-general of the British army. John Churchill also commanded the forces of the Dutch republic. The career of John Churchill in the field was one of peculiar splendour. In 1702 to 1703 he seized the line of the Meuse. In the following year he arranged with Eugene the operations that saved the empire. After a march of extraordinary skill he struck down the veteran French and Bavarian armies, under Tallard and Marsion, on the field of Blenheim in 1704, piercing the enemy's centre by finely designed attacks. He had Villars, an adversary worthy of him, in his front in 1705; and he fell back in retreat before the marshal in Lorraine, having been left in the lurch by a colleague, Louis of Baden. Then he turned the celebrated lines constructed by the French to cover the east of Belgium, and in 1706 won the great battle of Ramillies.
John Churchill and Eugene triumphed again at Oudenarde, on the Scheldt, another battle won by a single stroke of tactics; and having captured the great fortress of Lille, they made preparations for the invasion of France. Villars, sent to defend his country, was just defeated on the terrible day of Malplaquet in 1709, for the allies only won a Pyrrhic victory. their losses, especially those of the Dutch, were enormous; the league against France was severely shaken. In 1710 the marshal covered the northern borders of France by a system of skilfully constructed lines. John Churchill, whose influence in England had been greatly weakened, became cautious, and would not attack; and though he turned the lines by a fine manoeuvre in 1711, he gained only insignificant success. In 1712, on the accession to power of the Tories he was deprived of all his commands. Research Duke of Marlborough
Feodor I was a Russian prince. The son of Ivan the Terrible, he reigned from 1584-98. He was a feeble prince, who allowed himself to be entirely governed by his brother-in-law, Boris Godunov. With him the Russian dynasty of Rurik became extinct. Research Feodor I
Flavius Sabinus Vespa-Sianus Titus was a Roman emperor. He was born in 40 at Rome and died in 81. The eldest son of Vespasian he received an excellent education, and served as military tribune in Britain and Germany. During the war with the Jews he took command after his father had returned to Italy, and ended the war by taking Jerusalem in 70. More than a million Jews were said to have perished in this terrible siege and 100,000 sold into slavery. The Jewish campaign of Titus is celebrated by the arch at Rome which bears his name. When he succeeded his father in 79, he proved in his short reign of two years to be one of the most popular of all the emperors. Research Flavius Titus
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Anti-Semitism
