A colony is a settlement formed in one country by the inhabitants of another. Colonies may either be formed in dependence on the mother country or in independence. In the latter case the name of colony is retained only in a historical sense. Properly, perhaps, the term should be limited to a settlement which carries on a direct cultivation of the soil, as in the former British colonies of Canada and Australia in contrast to the former in Hindustan or Malta which were the mere superposition on the natives of a ruling race which took little or no part in the general industry of the country.
The motives which lead to the formation of colonies, and the manner of their formation, are various. Sometimes the ambition of extending territory and the desire of increasing wealth have been the chief impulses in colonization; but colonies became a necessity for the redundant population of European states in the 19th century.
Among ancient nations the principal promoters of colonization were the Phoenicians, the Greeks, and the Romans; the greatest colonizers in modern times have been the English and the Spaniards, next to whom may be reckoned the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the French. The Germans during the 19th century contributed largely to the tide of emigration, particularly in the direction of America;
but did little directly as colonizers.
The Phoenician colonies were partly caused by political dissensions and redundant population, but were chiefly commercial, serving as entrepots and ports of repair for Phoenician commerce along the coasts of Africa and Spain, in the latter of which they numbered, according to Strabo, more than two hundred. But it was in Africa that the most famous arose, Carthage, the greatest colonizing state of the ancient world.
The Greek colonies, which were widely spread in Asia Minor and the islands of the Mediterranean, the coasts of Macedonia and Thrace, in South Italy and Sicily, were commonly independent, and frequently soon surpassed the mother states in power and importance.
The colonies of Rome were chiefly military, and while the empire lasted were all in strict subordination to the central government. As the Roman power declined the remains of them amalgamated with the peoples among whom they were placed, thus forming in countries where they were sufficiently strong what are known as the Latin races, with languages (Spanish, Portuguese, French, and Italian) which are merely modifications of the old Roman tongue.
Before America and the way by sea to the East Indies were discovered, the only colonies belonging to European states were those of the Genoese, Pisans, and Venetians in the Levant and the Black Sea, flourishing establishments on which the mercantile greatness of Italy in those days was largely built.
The Portuguese were the first great colonizers among modern states. In 1419 they discovered Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verde Islands; the Congo and the Cape of Good Hope followed; and before the century was out Vasco de Gama had landed at Calicut on the Malabar coast of India. The first Portuguese colonies were garrisons along the coasts where they traded: Mozambique and Sofala on the east coast of Africa, Ormuz and Muscat in the Persian Gulf, Goa and Damao on the west coast of India. Colonies were established in Sri Lanka in 1505, in the Moluccas in 1510. Brazil was discovered in 1499, and this magnificent possession fell to Portugal, and was colonized about 1530. Bad government at home and the subjection of the country to Spain caused the loss of most of the Portuguese colonies.
Soon after the Portuguese the Spaniards commenced the work of colonization. In 1492 Columbus, on board of a Spanish vessel, discovered the island of San Salvador. Haiti, or San Domingo, Porto Rico, Jamaica, and Cuba were soon colonized, and before the middle of the 16th century Mexico, Ecuador, Venezuela, New Granada (Colombia), Peru, and Chili were subdued, and Spain took the first rank amongst the colonizing powers of Europe. But the Spaniards never really attempted to develop the industrial resources of the subject countries. The pursuit of mining for gold or silver occupied the colonists almost exclusively, and the enslaved natives were driven to work themselves to death in the mines. Cities were founded, at first along the coasts, for the sake of commerce and as military posts; afterwards also in the interior, in particular in the vicinity of the mines, as Vera Cruz, Cumana, Porto Bello, Carthagena, Valencia, Caracas; Acapuico and Panama, on the coast of the Pacific; Lima, Goncepcion, and Buenos Aires. The colonial intercourse with Spain was confined to the single port of Seville, afterwards to that of Cadiz, from which two squadrons started annually - the galleons, about twelve in number, for Porto Bello; and the fleet, of fifteen large vessels, for Vera Cruz. When the power of Spain declined, the colonies declared their independence, and thus were formed the republics of Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, etc. Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands passed to the United States in 1898; the Caroline Islands, etc, were sold to Germany in 1899; and by 1900 hardly any colony remained to Spain.
The hate of Philip II, who prohibited Dutch vessels from the port of Lisbon, forced the Dutch to import directly from India or lose the large carrying trade they had acquired. Several companies were soon formed, and in 1602 they were united into one, the Dutch East India Company, with a monopoly of the East Indiatrade and sovereign powers over all conquests and colonies in India. The Dutch now rapidly deprived the Portuguese of nearly all their East Indian territories, settled a colony at the Cape of Good Hope in 1650, established a West India Company, made extensive conquests in Brazil between 1623 and 1660, which were soon lost, and more permanent ones on some of-the smaller West India Islands, as San Eustatia, Curacoa, Saba, etc. The growing power of the British and the loss of Holland's independence during the Napoleonic wars were heavy blows to the colonial power of the nation. But the Dutch still possesed numerous colonies in the East Indies at the start of the 20th century, among which the more important were Java, Sumatra, Dutch Borneo, the Molucca Islands, and part of New Guinea, also several small islands in the West Indies, and Surinam.
No colonizing power of Europe had a career of such uniform prosperity as Great Britain. The English attempts at colonization began nearly at the same time with the Dutch. After many fruitless attempts to find a north-east or north-west passage to the East Indies, English vessels found their way round the Cape of Good Hope to the East Indies in 1591. The East India Company was established in 1600. English commerce with India, however, was not at first important, and they possessed only single factories on the continent up until the beginning of the 18th century. The ruin of the Mogul Empire in India after the death of Aurengzebe in 1707 afforded the opportunity for the growth of British power, as the British and French were compelled to interfere in the contentions of the native princes and governors. The French appeared at first to maintain the superiority; but the British in turn got the upper hand, and the victory of Clive at Plassey in 1756 laid the foundation of an exclusive British sovereignty in India. By the middle of the next century the British territory embraced, with the exception of a few dependent states, nearly the whole of India, and this vast territory was still under the government of the East India Company - a mercantile company, controlled indeed by parliament, but exercising many of the most important functions of an independent sovereignty. On the suppression of the Indian mutiny in 1857-1858 the government of India was transferred to the crown by act of parliament in 1858.
The discoveries of the Cabots, following soon after the voyages of Columbus, gave the English crown a claim to North America, which, though allowed to lie dormant for nearly a century, was never relinquished, and which, in the reign of Elizabeth I, led to colonization on a large scale. Walter Raleigh's settlement on Roanoke Island (North Carolina) in 1585 failed to become permanent, but in 1607 the colonists sent out by the London Company to Chesapeake Bay founded Jamestown, on the James River, in Virginia. The next great settlement was that of the Pilgrim Fathers, who landed on the 21st of December 1620, in Massachusetts Bay. The colonization of New Hampshire, Maine, New Jersey, Connecticut and Rhode Island, soon followed. In the State of New York and the Hudson River Territory the British found the Dutch already in possession; but in 1664 they seized the colony of New Amsterdam by force, changing its name to New York in honour of James, Duke of York. Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn, and colonized with Quakers in 1682; Maryland in 1631 by a party from Virginia; Carolina in 1670 and Georgia in 1732 by colonies from England.
Colonies were early established in the West India Islands, including Barbados, half of St. Christopher's in 1625, and soon after many smaller islands. Newfoundland was taken possession of in 1583, colonized in 1621 and 1633. Canada was surrendered to Britain at the Peace of Paris in 1763. In 1764 began the disputes between Britain and its North American colonies, which terminated with the acknowledgment of the independence of the United States, Canada remaining a British dependency.
Australia was discovered in the beginning of the 17th century. The first Australasian settlements of Britain were penal colonies. New South Wales, discovered in 1770, was established as a penal colony in 1788; Tasmania (Van Diemen's Land), discovered by Tasman in 1642, followed in 1803; West Australia, also first used as a penal settlement, became a free colony in 1829; Victoria was colonized in 1835, and made an independent colony in 1851; South Australia was settled in 1836. In 1851 the discovery of gold in Victoria gave a great impetus to the Australian Colonies. Queensland was made a separate colony from N.ew South Wales in 1859. New Zealand, discovered by Tasman in 1642, began to be used for whale-fishery about 1790, was settled in 1839, and made a colony in 1840. In 1874 the Fiji Islands, and in 1884 part of New Guinea, were annexed as crown colonies. In South AfricaCape Colony, first settled by the Dutch in 1652, finally became a British colony in 1815. Natal followed in 1843. Later annexations were Bechuanaland in 1885, Zululand in 1887, Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) in 1888-89, and the Orange River Colony and Transvaal in 1900. In Western Africa were the colonies of the Gold Coast, Gambia, and SierraLeone - ancient possessions of the British crown; with Lagos and Nigeria acquired in 1885 and after. Other possessions were British East Africa (Kenya), with Uganda and Somaliland. Gibraltar was acquired in 1704, Malta in 1800.
According to their government relations with the crown the colonies were arranged under three heads: (1.) Crown colonies, in which the crown had the entire control of legislation, while the administration was carried on by public officers under the control of the home government. (2.) Colonies possessing representative institutions but not responsible government, in which the crown had no more than a veto on legislation, but the home government retained the control of public officers. (3.) Colonies possessing representative institutions and responsible government, in which the crown had only a veto on legislation, and the home government had no control over any officer except the governor. All colonies were, however, disabled from such acts of independent sovereignty as the initiative in war, alliances, and diplomacy generally.
France was somewhat late in establishing colonies. Between 1627 and 1636 the West Indian islands of St Christopher's, Guadeloupe, and Martinique were colonized by private persons. Champlain was the pioneer of the French in the exploration of the North American continent, and founded Quebec in 1608. Colbert purchased several West India islands, as Martinique, Guadeloupe, St Lucia, etc, and sent out colonists in 1664 to Cayenne. In 1670 the East India Company formed by Colbert founded Pondicherry, which became the capital of extensive possessions in the East Indies. At the beginning of the 18th century France had extensive settlements in Canada, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, the most flourishing of the West India islands, and she seemed to have a prosperous career before her in India. Ere long, however, the rival interests of British and French colonists brought about a conflict which terminated in the loss of Canada and other North American possessions, as well as many of the West India Islands, while the dominion of India passed into the hands of the British.
During the 19th century Germany made an effort to take rank as a colonial power, and acquired in Africa the territories of Damaraland, Great Nama Land, etc, on the south-west coast, north of Cape Colony; the Cameroons District; a large portion of territory formerly claimed by the Sultan of Zanzibar, extending inland to Victoria Nyanza, etc; also in the Pacific a portion of New Guinea, then subsequently called Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, the BismarckArchipelago, Marshall Islands, etc.
The Cullinan Diamond was a diamond of over 3000 carats found in Cullinan mine in the Transvaal in 1907. It was bought by the Transvaal government for 150,000 pounds and presented to King Edward VII as the largest diamond known. It has subsequently been cut into 9 large stones. Research Cullinan Diamond
The Africander (Afrikaner) is a native South African breed of cow. It belongs to the Sanga type and is used primarily for meat production. The breed is usually red with long lateral horns. Sanga type cattle, in huge herds, were owned by the Hottentots when the Dutch established the Cape Colony in 1652. The animals were obtained by the colonists who improved them for use as draft animals. It was
Africander oxen that drew the wagons which carried Boer farmers and families on the Great Trek of 1835 - 1836 from the Cape of Good Hope to the Orange Free State, Natal and the Transvaal to escape British rule. The
Africander is South Africa's most popular native breed, comprising 30% of the cattlepopulation.
Africander cattle exhibit good resistance to heat, a high level of tick resistance, quiet temperament and a satisfactorily high level of fertility under harsh conditions. Mature cows weigh approximately 525 to 600 kg and bulls weigh 750 to 1000 kg. The Africander was used with Shorthorn in developing the Bonsmara breed and with Holstein cows in creating the Drakensberger. Research Africander
The Boers (from the Dutch Boer, a farmer) were early Dutch farming colonists in South Africa. In 1836-1837 many Boers, being dissatisfied with the British government in Cape Colony, migrated beyond the Orange River, and a number found their way to what is now Natal. Here there had been British settlements for some years, and the British formally annexed the country in 1843. Subsequently the Boers were allowed to establish the Orange Free State as an independent republic, and several other small republics, which finally were combined into one - the South African Republic, or Transvaal. In 1877 the Transvaal was annexed by Britain, according to the wish of many of the people, but war broke out in 1880, British forces suffered more than one defeat, and in 1881 the country was accorded a modified independence. Henceforth it was a common feeling among the Boers that they and not the British must be predominant in South Africa, and in October, 1899, after an insolent ultimatum, the united forces of the Transvaal and Orange State invaded Natal. The war which followed with Britain was concluded by the final surrender of the Boers in May, 1902; the two states having been declared British territory in 1900. Research Boers
Christian Rudolph De Wet was a Boer soldier and politician. He was born in 1854 in the Orange Free State and died in 1922. His father removing into the Transvaal, he fought as a field-cornet at Majuba. Aa member of the Volksraad from 1889 to 1897 he helped to draw the two Dutch Republics together, and in the South African War commanded first in Natal, and then in the west under Cronje, whose rescue at Paardeberg he attempted, but unsuccessfully. After March, 1900, he distinguished himself by his attacks on the British lines of communication, and by his skill in evading capture. He became Commander-in-Chief of the Free State forces, and was the only undefeated Boer general at the end of the war, after which he, with Louis Botha and Delarey, came to Europe to collect funds for his countrymen. He published an account of the struggle in The Three Years' War. In 1907 he became Minister of Agriculture in the Orange River Colony. In 1914 he joined the Afrikaner insurrection, was captured and sentenced to imprisonment for six years, but was released in 1915. Research Christian De Wet
Harry Escombe was prime minister of Natal. He was born in 1838 at London and died in 1899. He emigrated at an early age to Natal, where he became one of the leading solicitors and barristers of the colony. In 1872 he became member for Durban in the Legislative Council, served in the ZuluCampaign of 1879 to 1880 and in the Transvaal war of 1881. He was elected prime minister in 1897 and held the post until 1899. Research Harry Escombe
Sir Henry Rider Haggard was an English novelist. He was born in 1856 at Bradenham Hall, Norfolk and died in 1925. The son of a Norfolk landed proprietor, he became secretary to Sir Henry Bulwer, governor of Natal, in 1875, and held various other appointments in South Africa, including the mastership of the high-court of the Transvaal; but after 1879 mainly resided in England, being called to the bar in 1884. He made Africa the scene of Some of his novels, and his pictures of life and fighting among Kaffirs and other South African peoples are often more highly coloured than artistic. His first book was Cetewayo and his White Neighbours (1882), but he became much better known by his King Solomon's Mines (1886), and still more by his romantic She (1887), which were followed by Allan Quatermain, Jess, Maiwa's Revenge, Mr. Meeson's Will, Colonel Quaritch, V.C., Cleopatra, Eric Bright-eyes, Nada the Lily, Montezuma's Daughter, Joan Haste, Swallow, a Story of the Great Trek, Pearl-Maiden, Ayesha (a continuation of She), etc.
His tales are strong in incident and adventure, but weak in character-drawing. He greatly interested himself in the agriculture and rural industries of England, and made personal investigations by travel and otherwise, one result being the work (in two volumes) entitled Rural England (1902). Research Henry Rider Haggard
Louis Botha was a Boer statesman. He was born in 1863 at Greytown, Natal and died in 1919. In his earlier days he took part with the Boers who seized a portion of the territory of the Zulus afterwards incorporated in the Transvaal, and subsequently was cornet in the Vryheid district, and a member of the Transvaal Volksraad. On the outbreak of the South African War he took an active part in the invasion of Natal and the operations against Ladysmith. In 1910 upon the formation of the Union of South Africa he became Prime Minister and Minister of Native Affairs, a post he held until his death. Research Louis Botha
Marthinus Theunis Steyn was a South African statesman. He was born in 1857 and died in 1916. Educated in Holland and England, he was called to the Inner Temple in 1882. On returning to South Africa he practised law at Bloemfontein, before becoming state attorney in 1889 and later first puisne judge. In 1896 he was elected president of the Orange Free State and was loyal to Britain until the outbreak of the Boer War in 1899 when he sided with the Transvaal against the British, and declared war. After the Boer defeat he became a staunchsupporter of the British government. Research Marthinus Steyn
Piet Arnoldus Cronje was a Boer general. He was born in 1840 and died in 1911. He led the Transvaal insurrection of 1880 and besieged Potchefstroom in 1881 during the first Boer War. He was captured at Magersfontein in 1899 and sent as a prisoner to St Helena. Research Piet Cronje
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Cullinan Diamond
