Bone black (also known as drop black, ivory black and animal charcoal) is a black pigment produced by burning bones and other animal refuse in a closed retort. Bone black is usually supplied ground in turpentine as it tends to retard the drying of oil. Bone black also possesses the valuable property of arresting and absorbing into itself the colouring matter of liquids which are passed through it. Hence it was extensively used in the process of sugar-refining, when cylinders of large dimensions filled with this substance were used as filters. After a certain amount of absorption the charcoal became saturated and ceased to act. It had then to be restored by reheating, or could be used to make bone-ash. Bone black has also the property of absorbing odours, and so may serve as a disinfectant of clothing, rooms, etc. Research Bone Black
Frankincense is a name given to the oleo-resinous exudations from different species of conifers. American frankincense is obtained as a soft, yellow, resinous solid, with a characteristic turpentine odour, from Pinus Taeda. Another kind is exuded by the spruce fir, and forms a soft solid, the colour of which varies from white to violet red. From this Burgundy pitch is prepared by melting in water and straining through a cloth. The frankincense employed in religious ceremonies (also called also incense and olibanum) is a gum-resin obtained from Boswellia thurifera (or serrata), a tree somewhat resembling the sumach, belonging to the Amyridaceae, and inhabiting the mountains of India. It comes in semi-transparent yellowish tears, or sometimes in masses and possesses a bitter and nauseous taste, and is capable of being pulverized. When burned it exhales a strong aromatic odour, on which account it was much employed in the ancient temples, and still continues to be used in Catholic churches. Research Frankincense
Glue is an adhesive substance made by boilinganimalhides, hooves or bones. Glue consists of gelatine and chondrin, the proportions defining the adhesive qualities of the glue. Glue made from skins is superior to that made from bones, and the best glue is called 'Scotch glue'.
During the Victorian period large quantities of glue were produced from the skins of sheep, calves, cows, hares, dogs, cats, etc, from the refuse of tanneries and tawing works, from old gloves, from sinews, tendons, and other offal of animal origin.
By a process of cleaning and boiling the albuminoid elements of the animal matter are changed into gelatine. This in a soft jelly-like state constitutes size; dried into hard, brittle, glassy cakes, which before use must be melted in hot water, it formed the common glue used by joiners, etc during the Victorian period. When a solution is mixed with acetic or nitric acid it remains liquid, but still retains its power of cementing; in this state it is called liquid glue. Marine Glue is a cement made by dissolving india-rubber in oil of turpentine or coal-naphtha, to which an equal quantity of shellac is added. Research Glue
A varnish is a solution of resins or drying oils forming a transparent, hard, shiny surface on drying. Spirit varnishes use alcohol and other volatile liquids as the solvent, oil varnishes one of the drying oils, eg linseed oil, poppyseed, etc, usually diluted with oil of turpentine Resins dissolved in turpentine alone are often known as crystal varnishes. The usual resins are shellac, mastic, sandarac, etc, for spirit varnishes ; and amber, copal, kauri, etc., for oil varnishes. Lacquers are natural varnishes. Research Varnish
Coniferae (the Conifers) are the pines, firs, and their allies, a natural order of gymnospermous exogens, the essential character of which consists in the manner in which the ovules, not inclosed in an ovary, receive directly the action of the pollen without the intervention of a stigma. The ovules in these plants are borne on scales or modified leaves, which are spread out, not folded, and generally grouped in such a manner as to form a cone composed of a greater or smaller number of these leaves, of which only a portion may be fertile and bear ovules. The disposition, of the ovules in relation to these scales permits of a division of the Coniferae into three distinct families or tribes.
In the Cupressineae, which include the juniper, cypress, etc, the cones are formed of simple scales, each of which bears towards the base of its superior surface the ovules erect and sessile.
The second family, Abietineae, has in place of simple scales, scales actually double or formed of two parts; the lower one usually designated the bract; the other bearing at its base the ovules reversed. This family includes the pines, firs, and larches, the araucarias, Wellingtonias, dammaras, etc. In these two families the ovules are completely covered by the scales which constitute the cones, which unite after fecun-dation, and inclose the seedtill their maturity.
In the Taxineae, which constitute the third family, the scales are short, imperfect, and partly sterile, and neither cover the ovules at the period of fecundation nor at that of maturation. The ovules are usually set in the same manner as in the Cupressineae. The yew, the gingko, etc, belong to this family.
The Conifers are found in large forests in the north of Europe and America, and are of great importance as timber trees. They abound also in resinous juices and yield turpentine, pitch, tar, succinic acid, etc. The leaves are usually alternate, and awl or needle shaped, the naked flowers are monoecious or dioecious, the male flowers being in deciduous catkins, the female in cones. Research Coniferae
Icica is a genus of plants, of the natural order Amyridaceae, mostly large trees, natives of South America. Icica altissima, the cedar-wood of Guiana, is a useful timber. All of these trees yield a transparentfluid resembling turpentine in many of its properties, and sometimes named idea, also elemi or copal. Research Icica
In the literal sense, anatomy means simply a cutting up, but is now generally applied both to the art of dissecting or artificially separating the different parts of an organized body (vegetable or animal) with a view to discover their situation, structure, and economy; and to the science which treats of the internal structure of organized bodies. The branch which treats the structure of plants is called vegetable anatomy or phytotomy, and that which treats of the structure of animals animal anatomy or zootomy, a special branch of the latter being human anatomy or anthropotomy.
Comparative anatomy is the science which compares the anatomy of different classes or species of animals, as that of man with quadrupeds, or that of quadrupeds with fishes; while special anatomy treats the construction, form, and structure of parts in a single animal. The special anatomy of an animal may be studied from various standpoints: with relation to the succession of forms which it exhibits from its first stage to its adult form (developmental or embryotical anatomy), with reference to the general properties and structure of the tissues or textures (general anatomy, histology), with reference to the changes in structure of organs or parts produced by disease and congenital malformations (morbid or pathological anatomy), or with reference to the function, use, or purpose performed by the organs or parts (ideological or physiological anatomy).
According to the parts of the body described the different divisions of human anatomy receive different names; as, osteology, the description of the bones; myology, of the muscles; demology, of the ligaments and sinews; splanchnology, of the viscera or internal organs, in which are reckoned the lungs, stomach, and intestines, the liver, spleen, kidneys, bladder, pancreas, etc. Angiology describes the vessels through which the liquids in the body are conducted, including the blood-vessels, which are divided into arteries and veins, and the lymphatic vessels, some of which absorb matters from the bowels, while others are distributed through the whole body, collecting juices from the tissues and carrying them back into the blood. Neurology describes the system of the nerves and of the brain; dermatologytreats of the skin.
Among anatomical labours are particularly to be mentioned the making and preserving of anatomical preparations. Preparations of this sort can be preserved (1) by drying them and clearing away all muscular adhesions, etc, as is done with skeletons, the bones of which are sometimes washed with acids to give firmness and whiteness; (2) by putting them into liquids, as alcohol, spirits of turpentine, etc, as is done with the intestines and other soft parts of the body; (3) by injection, which is used with vessels, the course and distribution of which are to be made sensible and the shape of which is to be retained; (4) by tanning and covering with a suitable varnish, as the muscles.
Among the ancient writers or authorities on human anatomy may be mentioned Hippocrates the younger who lived between 460 and 377 BC, Aristotle who lived between 384 and 322 BC, Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria who lived about 300 BC Celsus who lived between 53 BC and 37 AD, and Galen of Pergamus who lived between 140 and 200, the most celebrated of all the ancient authorities on the science. From his time until the revival of learning in Europe in the fourteenth century anatomy was checked in its progress.
In 1315 Mondino, professor at Bologna, first publicly performed dissection, and published a System of Anatomy, which was a text-book in the schools of Italy for about 200 years. In the sixteenth century Fallopio of Padua, Eustachi of Venice, Yesalius of Brussels, Varoli of Bologna, and many others, enriched anatomy with new discoveries. In the seventeenth century Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood, Asellius discovered the manner in which the nutritious part of the food is conveyed into the circulation, while the lymphatic system was detected and described by the Dane T. Bartoline.
Until 1832 the law of Great Britain made very insufficient provision for enabling anatomists to obtain the necessary supply of subjects for dissection. An act of some years previously had, it is true , empowered a criminal court, when it saw fit, to give up to properly qualified persons the body of a murderer after execution for dissection. This, however, was far from supplying the deficiency, and many persons, tempted by the high prices offered for bodies by anatomists, resorted to the nefarious practice of digging up newly-buried corpses, and frequently, as in the case of the notorious Burke and Hare of Edinburgh, to murder. To remedy these evils a statute was passed in 1832, which made provision for the wants of surgeons, students, or other duly qualified persons, by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of the bodies of persons who die friendless in alms-houses, hospitals, etc. The act also appointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the anatomical schools, and required persons practising the operations to obtain a license. Relatives had a right under the law to effectually object to the anatomical examination of a body even though the deceased had expressed a desire for it.
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Bone Black
