An andiron (fire-dog) is a metal utensil consisting of two upright and generally ornamental pillars set at some distance from each other with a horizontal bar connecting them. They were originally designed to prop up the extremities of logs of wood while they were being burnt. Later they were used to support the ends of a spit. Research Andiron
A churn is a vessel in which milk or cream is agitated or beaten in order to separate the liquid from the solids, thereby leaving butter. Originally churns consisted of an upright wooden vessel in which the milk was agitated by a pole with a wooden disk at the lower end (known as a dasher). By the late 19th century churns were being made of metal, and were generally circular and fitted with rods inside known as dashers. Two methods of agitation were employed, sometimes the vessel was turned by way of a handle, and sometimes the dashers inside were turned by way of a handle. Research Churn
The Coronation Chair is an ancient chair kept in Westminster Abbey, and used at the coronation of the sovereigns of England, all of whom have been crowned in it since Edward I. It is said to have been made for that king, and is architectural in design, having a high, upright, gabled, and crocketed back, with panels of tracery work, and rests on four carved lions. In a space beneath the seat is the famous Coronation Stone, the Scottish Lia Fail or 'Stone of Destiny', carried off to England by Edward I. It is said to have been originally brought from Ireland, and was used in the coronation of the Scottish kings at Scone. It is a block of red sandstone, derived, according to Skene, from the rocks near Scone. There is also a coronation chair for the consort, made for the coronation of Mary II, when she was crowned along with William III. Research Coronation Chair
A cross is one straight body laid at any angle across another, or a symbol of similar shape. Among the ancients a piece of wood fastened across a tree or upright post formed a cross, on which were executed criminals of the worst class. It had, therefore, a place analogous to that of the modern gallows as an instrument of infamous punishment until it acquired honour from the crucifixion of Christ. The custom of making the sign of the cross in memory of Christ may be traced to the 3rd century. Constantine had crosses erected in public places, palaces, and churches, and adopted it, according to a legend, as the device for a banner (labarum) in consequence of a dream representing it as the symbol of victory. In his time also Christians painted it at the entrance of their houses as a sign of their faith, and subsequently the churches were for the most part built in the form of a cross. It did not, however, become an object of adoration until after the alleged discovery of the true cross by the EmpressHelena in 326. Its adoption as the Christian symbol may be held to connect itself with the fact that it was used emblematically long before the Christian era, in the same way that traces of belief in a trinity, in a war in heaven, in a paradise, a flood, a Babel, an immaculate conception, and remission by the shedding of blood, are to be found diffused amongst widely sundered peoples. The general meaning attached to the sign appears to have been that of life and regeneration.
Since its adoption by Christianity it has undergone many modifications of shape, and has been employed in a variety of ways for ornaments, badges, heraldic bearings, etc. After the introduction of the cross into the military ensigns of the Crusaders its use in heraldry became frequent, and its form was varied more than that of any other heraldic ordinary, some of the varieties being of great beauty.
The name cross is also given to various architectural structures, of which a cross in stone was a prominent feature; thus we have market crosses, preaching crosses, monumental crosses, etc.
A diota was a Roman vessel used for water or wine. It had a narrow neck, a full body, and two handles. The form and sized varied, but it was generally made tall and narrow, and terminating in a point which could be put in a stand or into the ground to keep the vessel upright. Several were found in the cellars of Pompeii standing upright in the ground. Research Diota
The ducking stool was in which shrewish offenders were bound and plunged in water as a punishment and torture. They were of different forms, but that most commonly in use consisted of an upright post and a transverse movable beam on which the seat was fitted or from which it was suspended by a chain. The penalty was inflicted on scolds of both sexes, quarrelsome married couples being immersed tied back-to-back. Ducking stools were extensively used throughout Britain from the 15th until the beginning of the 18th century, the last recorded use of the ducking stool in England was in 1809 at Leominster. Research Ducking Stool
A Ferris wheel is an amusement park ride consisting of a large upright wheel rotating on a fixed stand and having suspended around its rim chairs, or capsules in which riders sit. These chairs or capsules are freely suspended so that they remain upright as the wheel rotates. The Ferris wheel was named after the 19th century American engineer G W G Ferris. The largest Ferris wheel is the London Eye on London's embankment which was erected for the millennium celebrations. Research Ferris Wheel
The guillotine is an engine for beheading people at one stroke. It was invented during the Middle Ages, and adopted with improvements by the National Assembly of France during the first revolution on the proposal of a Dr Joseph Guillotine who proposed its use to prevent unnecessary pain, and after whom it is named.
In this apparatus decapitation is effected by means of a steel blade loaded with a mass of lead, and sliding between two upright posts, grooved on their inner sides, the person's neck being confined in a circular opening between two planks, the upper one of which also slides up or down. The condemned is strapped to a board and rapidly moved up so as to place the neck of the condemned within the semi- circle of the lower plank, the other being raised for the purpose. On the right of the table is a large basket or trough of wicker-work for the reception of the body. Under the place where the head rests is a rectangular trough for its reception. The knife is fixed to the cap or lintel on the top of the posts by a claw in the form of a figure eight, the lower part of which opens as the upper- part closes. This claw is acted upon by a lever to which a cord is attached. When the head of the condemned is in position the cord is pulled, and by the action of the lever the knife falls, descending by the grooves of the upright posts and falling upon the neck of the condemned just behind the planks which keep the head in position. The scaffold which is surrounded by an open railing is raised two metres from the ground.
The name guillotine is also given to a type of knife used for cutting paper. Research Guillotine
A sundial or dial is an instrument for showing the hour of the day from the shadow thrown while the sun is shining by a stile or gnomon upon a graduated surface. The sundial has been known from the earliest times amongst Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Hebrews. From those eastern nations it came to the Greeks. It was introduced into Rome during the first Punic war.
Sundials are of various construction, horizontal, inclined, or upright, the principle in every case being to show the sun's distance from the meridian by means of the shadow cast by the stile or gnomon. The stile is made parallel with the earth's axis,and may be considered as coinciding with the axis of the diurnal rotation. Consequently as the sun moves westwards the shadow of the stile moves round in the opposite direction, falling on the meridian lines so marked as to represent the hours of the day. The sundial of course gives solar time, which, except on four days of the year, is slightly different from that of a well-regulated clock. Since at least 1900 sundials have been rather articles of curiosity or ornament than of use. Research Sundial
Originally, a tumbler was a drinking-vessel with a rounded or tapering base which mean that it was unable to stand upright unsupported. Today, the term is applied to a cylindrical glass drinking vessel without handles or a foot but with a heavy flat base. Research Tumbler
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Andiron
