The AC Cobra (known in the USA as the Shelby Cobra and the Ford Cobra) was a British sports car built between 1962 and 1968. The AC Cobra resulted after the Texan racer, Carroll Shelby, approached AC Cars with an idea for fitting a 4.2 litre Ford V-eight engine into the light AC Ace sports car to make a competition racing car. The AC Cobra was produced with various engines between 4261 and 6997 cc capacity with power between 164 and 490 bhp providing a top speed of between 218 and 290 kmh. In 1967 the AC Cobra with seven-litre engine, won the record as the fastest accelerating production car, reaching 0-60 mph in 4.2 seconds. Research AC Cobra
Anti-Semitism, hostility to the Jews (Semites), has long been actively exhibited in severities and attacks of various kinds. A movement of the late 19th century manifested in various countries, especially Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Romania, and France. It may have been attributed to different motives in different countries, but on the whole owed its origin less to the fact of the Jews being a 'peculiar people' by race and religion, than to the comparatively high position won by them in the financial and political worlds.
In Western Russia there was a great outburst against the Jews in 1881, in which men, women, and children were slaughtered. The Russian government, by its anti-Jewish policy, may be said to have sanctioned this murderous outbreak, which was followed by harsh laws and actual persecutions, though afterwards there was a mitigation of the severity shown towards the Jews. Yet in 1903 the world was startled by a terrible massacre of Jews at Kishinef, in Bessarabia, connived at by the authorities on the spot; and towards the end of 1905, in connection with the Russian revolutionary movement, there were dreadful massacres of Jews in Odessa, Kishinef, and other towns, the authorities being similarly involved. In Russia, hatred of the Jews was party due to the position they occupied throughout the country as money-lenders.
In Rumania their position resembled what it was elsewhere in mediaeval times, and was less favourable than it was even under the Turks. In Germany, even before Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party the movement was worked chiefly by politicians for their own ends, though the racial and religious question also had some influence; and among the ignorant the .belief that the Jews murder Christian children for ritual purposes was revived, as also in Austria-Hungary. In Austria-Hungary the movement was partly political, partly social and economic, partly religious.
In France anti-Semitism was employed chiefly as a weapon by monarchists and clericals as against republicanism, and by the socialists as against capitalism, racial antipathy having also its influence in the movements. In Britain, anti-Semitism was much less severe, owing to there having been a very large influx of Jews from the Continent, forming part of Britian's immigration policy.
Anti-Semitism hit a climax in the 1930's with Adolf Hitler and the German Nazi Party with the wholesale slaughter of Jews throughout Europe, which provided an excuse for other world powers to oppose Germany's expansion through war - though economic reasons seem much more likely - and culminated in the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, subsequently named Israel, following the end of the Second World War. Research Anti-Semitism
Chinaware is a name given to porcelain (pottery made from kaolin), so called from China being the first country to supply it to Europeans. It is thought that the Chinese produced porcelain from ancient times, but it wasn't until around 500 AD that they perfected the art. Chinaware first came to Europe in the beginning of the 16th century and won immediate popularity for its beauty and novelty.
The European consumers thought it impossible to match the whiteness of Chinaware, until John Frederick of Saxony, an alchemist, discovered a means of producing a porcelain equal in whiteness to the Chinaware. This led to the establishment by the Government of a factory at Meissen which started to produce porcelain rivalling the Chinaware in beauty and quality.
In France also about the middle of the 18th century the celebrated factory at Sevres was set up and soon acquired a great renown. In England a porcfaiain work was established at Chelsea some years prior to 1745; it was made at Stratford-le-Bow about the same time, at Derby as early as 1750, at Worcester in 1751. About 1755 kaolin or porcelain clay was discovered in Cornwall, and this contributed greatly to improve the quality of English porcelain, which began to be largely manufactured in Staffordshire under the auspices of Josiah Spode and Thomas Minton.
Chinaware, when broken, presents a granular surface with a compact, dense, firm, hard, vitreous and durable texture. It is semi-transparent, with a covering of white glaze, clear, smooth, unaffected by all acids except hydroflouric acid, and able to withstand sudden changes of temperature. Research Chinaware
Delage were a make of successful French cars, including Grand Prix cars made between 1905 and 1953. In 1908 Delage driving his own make of car won the 500 km Dieppe Grand Prix clocking an average speed of 50 mph, and in 1911 the X type designed by Michelat won the Coupe de l'Auto at Boulogne. Research Delage
Historically the Democratic Party was the most important of the American political parties, having been in continuous existence since the end of the 18th century. The rise of such a party, as soon as national politics began under the new Constitution, was natural. The love of individual liberty rather than strong government, was native in the minds of most Americans. Those who felt this most strongly would be likely to look with apprehension upon the Federal Government, and the possibility of its encroaching upon the States under cover of the new Federal Constitution. They were therefore likely to be advocates of strict construction of the Constitution and of States' rights. To these elements of party feeling, which had drawn the Anti-Federalists together in 1788, was added a few years later the strong sympathy of many Americans with the French Revolution, and the desire that Government should aid France in her contest with England.
Thomas Jefferson put himself at the head of the party drawn together by agreement in these sentiments, and led them in opposition to the Federalists. The party took the name of Democratic-Republican. Before Monroe's administration its members were more commonly called Republicans, since then most commonly Democrats. From the first the party was strongest in the Southern States. From its origin in 1792 to 1801, it was in opposition. In 1798 and 1799, upon the passage of the Alien and Sedition laws, it took strong ground for States' rights in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. The election of Jefferson. in 1801 brought it into power. The chief tenets of the party were, belief in freedom of religion, of politics, of speech and of the press, in popular rule, in peace, in economical government, in the utmost possible restriction of the sphere of government, in hospitality to immigrants, and in the avoidance of foreign complications.
Placed in control of the government, the majority of the party drifted away from its strict constructionist ground, and supported measures of a nationalizing character. After the War of 1812, the Federalist party went out of existence, and the Democratic party had complete possession of the field. In 1820, Monroe was re-elected without opposition. But opposing tendencies in the nation and in the party were already showing themselves, and preparing the way for a new party division, between the Whigs, advocates of protection and other nationalizing measures, and those Democrats who held to the old programme of States' rights and free trade and restricted government. With the accession of Jackson in 1829, new social strata came into power in the Democratic party, the widening of the suffrage giving it a more popular character. Managed by skilful politicians, not without the aid of the spoils system, the party won every Presidential election but two (1840, 1848) from this time to 1860, destroyed the US bank, annexed Texas, and carried the country through the war with Mexico. But meanwhile the slavery question, coming into increasing prominence, was gradually forcing a division between the Democrats of the South and the great body of those in the North, who were unwilling to go so far in the protection of slavery by national authority as was desired by their Southern allies. The final split came in the nominating convention of 1860.
Two candidates were nominated, Abraham Lincoln and the Republicans won the election, and the American Civil War broke out. Though many War Democrats aided the administration in preserving the Union, the party was discredited in the eyes of many by its previous connection with the Southern leaders and the pro-slavery cause, and won no Presidential election until that of 1884, when in the minds of many the war issues were extinct and economic questions had taken their place. Defeated in 1888, it was again successful in 1892. By the end of the 19th century the party was hardly more strict-constructionist than the Republican, nor more marked by devotion to States' rights and the party was mostly noted as the opponent of a high tariff.
By the end of the 20th century the differences between the Democratic party and Republicans had become blurred, though the Democratic party was generally perceived - not always accurately - as more left-wing or liberal than the Republicans. Research Democratic Party
Gaming, or gambling is the practice of indulging in games involving some element of chance or hazard with a view to pecuniary gain.
In many countries such games, and the collateral practices of betting on events, taking shares in lotteries, etc, are legally prohibited or restricted as frequently associated with fraud and as themselves demoralizing. At other times governments, tempted by the prospect of gain, have openly encouraged gambling by licensing gaming- houses, or instituting lotteries under their own authority. In France public gaming-tables were suppressed from the 1st of January, 1838, but lotteries were still sometimes carried on.
Previous to the formation of the German Empire gambling was encouraged in both of the ways referred to in several of the principalities of Germany. Baden-Baden, in the Grand-duchy of Baden, and Homburg, in Hesse-Homburg, were the two most famous resorts in Europe of the frequenters of gaming-tables. After the formation of the empire gaming was suppressed in these places on the 31st of December, 1872, and after that time the Italian principality of Monaco became the last public resort of this species of gambling, quickly developing into a world famous gaming center even after a relaxation of gaming rules in other European countries during the 20th century.
In Great Britain gaming has been the subject of numerous enactments. Henry VIII made proclamation against certain games, including dice, cards, and bowls, and prohibited the keeping of any common house for unlawful games under penalties of 40 shillings per day for keeping the house, and 6s. 8d per time for playing in it.
By an act of Charles II in 1663 any person fraudulently winning money by gaming was to forfeit treble the amount, and any person losing more than 100 pounds at cards, etc, on credit at one sitting was not bound to pay, and the winner forfeited treble the amount.
Under Anne all notes, bills, bonds, etc, given for money won by gaming were decreed void, and any person paying a loss of more than 10 pounds might recover it within three months as a common debt; or if the loser did not sue, any other person might do so. In the reign of William IV such notes were declared void between the parties, but not in the hands of purchasers or endorsers.
By acts of George II keepers of public-houses were punishable for permitting gaming, and the games of faro, hazard, roulette, and all other games with dice, except backgammon, are prohibited under penalties. This law, with amendments is still in force in 2009 with cribbage, dominoes and other games of pure skill allowed to be played in public-houses for moderate stakes.
An act of 1845, while repealing some of the previous acts and exempting games of mere skill, including billiards and dominoes, inflicted the penalty of 100 pounds (afterwards increased to a maximum of 500 pounds) on any person keeping a gaming-house, with the alternative of six months' imprisonment. Cards and other games could of course be played in private houses, but not in gaming-houses, or in such a way as to constitute a nuisance. Persons playing or gaming in public places could be punished as rogues and vagabonds. Penalties were inflicted for keeping billiard
or bagatelle tables without a license. Lotteries and raffles were illegal (but art union lotteries were excepted). Persons fraudulently winning money by gaming were deemed guilty of obtaining it by false pretences. No suit-at-law could be brought against a loser for money won at play or to recover money so lost, or to recover a deposit from a stakeholder; but this did not apply to prizes at any lawful sport. Later acts provide that betting-houses should be considered gaming-houses. Any person found in a gaming-house who gave a false name or address was liable to a fine of fifty pounds. Research Gaming
The Leamington stove was a form of kitchener or kitchen range exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851 where it won a first-class prize medal and was again exhibited in an improved version at the Dublin Exhibition of 1853. The Leamington Stove was a single fire stove with a hot plate large enough for several vessels to stand upon and be kept boiling; a very well ventilated and spacious wrought iron roaster with movable shelves, draw-out stand, double dripping-pan and meat-stand. The roaster could be converted into an oven by closing the valves, allowing bread and pastry to be baked. The Leamington Stove also had a large iron boiler with brass tap and steampipe, round and square gridirons for cooking chops and steaks, ashpan, open fire for roasting and a set of ornamental covings with plate-warmer attached. Research Leamington Stove
Lotus was a motorcar company founded in 1952 by Colin Chapman, who built his first racing car in 1948, and also developed high-powered production saloon and innovative sports cars, such as the Lotus-Cortina and Lotus Elan. Lotus has been one of the leading Grand Prix manufacturers since they entered Formula One 1960. Jim Clark, twice world champion, had all his Grand Prix wins in a Lotus. The last Lotus world champion was Mario Andretti in 1978. After Colin Chapman's death, the company won some Grand Prix with Ayrton Senna. Without Chapman's innovative direction, the team never regained its momentum, and after a series of management changes the directors Peter Collins and Peter Wright made heroic efforts to keep the team going until the end of the 1994 season, when underfunding and debts forced it into administratorship. David Hunt, brother of James Hunt, bought the company from the administrator and tried, unsuccessfully, to find sponsors to enable Lotus to continue and develop a new race car. In January 1995 a world famous name in motor racing ceased to exist. Research Lotus
Montanism was a schismatic movement which arose in the Christian church during the 2nd century. Montanus, the originator of the movement, was a Mysian, and about 130 began to make the claim of being a divinely commissioned prophet, the bearer of a fresh influx of the Spirit. He soon gained a large following, and with two women, Maximilla and Priscilla, likewise possessors of the new charism of the Spirit, proclaimed the imminent return of Christ at Pepuza in Phrygia, and demanded a radical transformation of the church's life, for example by fasting, by regarding marriage as an inferior state, and by refusing to absolve from post- baptismal sin.
The spread of Montanism in Asia Minor soon compelled the church to take action. But the condemnation of its tenets only disseminated them more widely: they gained adherents in Italy and Gaul, and in North Africa won over Tertullian of Carthage. A synod at Iconium, in 235, declared Montanism to be a heretical system, and the council of Constantinople in 381 refused to sanction the baptism of Montanism, thereby putting it on the same footing as paganism. By 400 the movement was practically extinct. Research Montanism
Naive art is a term applied to painting (and to a much lesser degree sculpture) produced in more or less sophisticated modern societies but lacking conventional representational skills. Colours are characteristically bright and non-naturalistic, perspective non-scientific, and the vision childlike or literal-minded. Interest in the freshness and directness of vision of outstanding naive artists such as Henri Rousseau developed in France in the early years of the 20th century, and since then many other
naive artists, for example Grandma Moses in the USA, have won critical recognition. Research Naive Art
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research AC Cobra
