Among the Romans, a circus was a nearly rectangular building without a roof, in which public chariot-races and exhibitions of pugilism and wrestling, etc, took place. It was rectangular, except that one short side formed a half-circle; and on both sides, and on the semicircular end, were the seats of the spectators, rising gradually one above another, like steps. On the outside the circus was surrounded with colonnades, galleries, shops, and public places. The largest of these buildings in Rome was the Circus Maximus, capable, according to Pliny, of containing 260,000, and according to Aurelius Victor, 385,000 spectators. At present, however, but few vestiges of it remain, and the circus of Caracalla is in the best preservation. The games celebrated in these structures were known collectively by the name of ludi circenses, circensian games, or games of the circus, which under the emperors attained the greatest magnificence.
The principal games of the circus were the ludi Romani or magni (Roman or Great Games), which were celebrated from the 4th to the 14th of September, in honour of the great gods, so called. The passion of the common or poorer class of people for these shows appears from the cry with which they addressed their rulers - panem et circenses (bread and the games!). The festival was opened by a splendid procession, or pompa, in which the magistrates, senate, priests, augurs, vestal virgins, and athletes, took part, carrying with them the images of the great gods, the Sibylline books, and sometimes the spoils of war. On reaching the circus the procession went round once in a circle, the sacrifices were performed, the spectators took their places, and the games commenced. These were:
1. Races with horses and chariots, in which men of the highest rank engaged.
2. The gymnastic contests.
3. The Trojan games, prize contests on horseback, revived by Julius Caesar.
4. The combats with wild beasts, in which beasts fought with beasts or with men (criminals or volunteers).
5. Representations of naval engagements (naumachioe), for which purpose the circus could be laid under water.
The expense of these games was often immense. Pompey, in his second consulship, brought forward 500 lions at one combat of wild beasts, which, with eighteen elephants, were slain in five days.
The modern circus is a place where horses and wild animals are trained to perform antics, and where exhibitions of acrobats and various pageantries, including a large amount of buffoonery, are presented. Research Circus
The red deer (Cervus elaphus) is Britain's largest native land mammal. The male is larger than the female, standing 120 centimetres at the shoulder, and has well developed, branching antlers which are shed each February, a new set growing in the spring, and becoming larger each season. In summer the coat appears reddish brown, but in the winter changes to grey-brown. Red deer live in single sex herds for much of the year, spending much of the day wrestling and wallowing in mud. Mating takes place during the autumn, and the annual rut is accompanied by roaring, bellowing sounds from the males.
Kelly Carlson is an American actress. She was born in 1976 at Minneapolis, Minnesota. She is known for her starring role in the 2004 film 'Starship Troopers 2: Hero of the Federation', for her role as 'Kate Triton' in the WWE wrestling shows and appearing as 'Kimber Henry' in the television series 'Nip/Tuck'. Research Kelly Carlson
Antaeos was the giant, wrestling son of Poseidon and Ge. He was invincible so long as he remained in contact with the earth. Hercules killed him by picking him up so that his feet were off the ground and then stifling him. Research Antaeos
Games is a name of certain sports or amusements carried on under regular rules and methods, as with cards or dice, billiards, tennis, etc. Among the ancients there were public games or sports, exhibited on solemn occasions, in which various kinds of contests were introduced. The Grecian games were national festivals attended by spectators and competitors from all parts of Greece, the chief being the Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian. They consisted of chariot races, running, wrestling, and boxingmatches, etc, and to be victorious in one of these contests was esteemed one of the highest honours of a Greek citizen. The Roman games (ludi) were held chiefly at the festivals of the gods. They might, however, be exhibited by private persons to please the people, as the combats of gladiators, theatrical representations, combats of wild beasts in the amphitheatre, etc. Research Games
The Hawaiian Games were a festival of sport embracing the territory of Hawaii. For three months of the year the population would engage in sports and celebrations to honour the god of sports, Louoi- ka-Makahiki. The competitions took place in over 100 games including index finger wrestling, spear- throwing and surfboard riding. The games were suppressed by American missionaries from 1821 onwards who even banned surfboard riding. Research Hawaiian Games
The Probert Encyclopaedia was designed, edited and programed by
Matt and Leela Probert
Abbreviations
Research Circus
